DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.2 Description of study area
The province of KZN is located on the eastern coast of South Africa and displays large scale socio-economic and environmental diversity. The province is approximately 94 361 km2 (7.7% of South Africa’s total area) and houses an estimated 10.3 million people (19.8% of the total population) (SSA, 2012a). In terms of housing, approximately 71.9% of residents live in formal dwellings, 19% reside in traditional type housing and 8.3% live in informal dwellings (SSA, 2012a). IsiZulu and English are the two principal languages, with 13.2% of the population utilising English as their main language (SSA, 2011). KwaZulu-Natal comprises 12 district municipalities which are further sub-divided into 55 local municipal areas. This study focuses on two communities, one located within the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality and the other in the Okhahlamba Local Municipality (Figure 4.1). The Okhahlamba region is classified as being predominantly rural whilst Inanda is considered peri-urban. The latter community is located on the periphery of eThekwini (Durban) central within the eThekwini Municipality (the economic hub for KZN), whilst the Bergville community falls within the Okhahlamba Municipality and is located in western KZN (Figure 4.1).
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Figure 4.1: Location of Bergville and Inanda communities with the province of KZN (Author, 2016)
KwaZulu-Natal is considered to be one of South Africa’s major tourist destinations and is characterised by both urban and rural settlement types. The province has amongst the highest growth rates within the country with an average household income of R83 050 per annum (SSA, 2012b). However, this average does not reflect the diverse levels of household incomes
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within the province adequately. Rapid rates of rural-urban migration and the presence of settlements along the urban periphery and in remote rural areas have resulted in stark socio- economic and demographic inequalities across the province. The present study compares the energy profiles of rural (Bergville) and peri-urban (Inanda) households in an attempt to improve knowledge on and an understanding of, energy practices among the poor.
4.2.1 Inanda
Inanda is located in the northern region of the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality, approximately 25 km North-east of eThekwini’s city centre (DPLG, 2007). The total population is around 153 106 individuals that are distributed across an area of 24.5 km2 with an average density of 6 258/km2 (SSA, 2012c). According to Khan (2007), Inanda is one of the largest settlements of low-income residential areas in South Africa. Furthermore, Inanda is further divided into 31 townships which are characterised by uneven population distributions with Newtown A being considered the most densely populated (Figure 4.2) (DPLG, 2007).
4.2.1.1 Climate conditions
Average monthly temperatures in Inanda range from 10.9C during the winter and 27.4C in summer, July and December, respectively (eThekwini Municipality, 2013). Rainfall is experienced throughout the year (78.3 mm average) with January receiving the highest recorded rainfall (131 mm) while the lowest precipitation is received during June (29 mm) (eThekwini Municipality, 2013). Wind direction varies considerably throughout the year, due to the undulating terrain (eThekwini Municipality, 2013).
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Figure 4.2: Main features and population density of Inanda (Author, 2016)
4.2.1.2 Socio-economic characteristics
According to the DPLG (2007), Inanda was established in the 1800s to house African and Indian communities that were forcibly removed from the Cato Manor region. According to the previous racial classification, 99.7% of residents are African, with smaller clusters of Coloured (0.2%) and Indian (0.1%) residents (SSA, 2011). The region comprises formal (52%), informal (43%) and traditional (5%) type dwellings, with the highest informal dwellings located in the Bhambayi township (DPLG, 2007) (Figure 4.3c). Unsurprisingly,
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rates of employment are considerably low resulting in 43.1% of individuals being unemployed and 33% economically inactive (DPLG, 2007). The low levels of employment can, in part, be attributed to the overall low levels of education, with 22% of residents having completed secondary level schooling (DPLG, 2007). Furthermore, Inanda is described as a low-income community with high levels of poverty; the average household income is considerably lower than that of the eThekwini Municipality (R112 830 per annum) but higher than the provincial mean (R83 050 per annum) (SSA, 2012c).
Figure 4.3: Variations in density (a & b) and dwelling type (c & d) among households in Inanda (Author, 2014)
As mentioned earlier, population density differs across the Inanda community; the gentler terrain is characterised by higher densities (Figure 4.3a), compared to locations that are more remote and those with steeper terrains (Figure 4.3b). Additionally, there are differences in dwelling types; most dwellings are formal brick structures (Figure 4.3d), however, there are some informal structures as well (Figure 4.3c). These differences may present challenges
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when establishing suitable renewable energy strategies. Furthermore, this highlights the community level differences in socio-economic and environmental conditions, which are often overlooked in energy planning and policy debates.
In 2001, the South African Government initiated the Urban Renewal Programme (URP) and the Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Programme (ISRDP) to address under- development in the most severely impoverished urban and rural communities. Alexandra, Galeshewe, Mitchell’s Plain, Khayelitsha, Motherwell, Mdantsane, Inanda, Ntuzuma and KwaMashu were identified as the key nodes (DPLG, 2007). As a result of the geographic proximity between Inanda, Ntuzuma and KwaMashu, and the overlap of wards and township boundaries, the region was categorised as the Inanda, Ntuzuma and KwaMashu (INK) development node (DPLG, 2007). Subsequently, the INK node has been recognised as one of five pilot areas for Area-based Management (ABM) (DPLG, 2007). The ABM programme was designed to implement municipal Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) at the sub- municipal level by integrating civil society, government and private sectors. Despite these attempts, the INK region is among the most impoverished communities within the Municipality (eThekwini Municipality, 2013).
Housing in KwaMashu and Ntuzuma is predominantly formal, whilst Inanda exhibits the highest concentrations of informal housing, limited service delivery and is experiencing severe government housing backlogs (DPLG, 2007). Additionally, the socio-economic issues are exacerbated by high unemployment rates, low levels of education and limited household incomes (DPLG, 2007). Hemson (2003) states that poverty within Inanda is unevenly distributed, however, with the highest levels being confined to zones that have high levels of informal settlements, such as Bhambayi, and zones located furthest away from major roads.
Despite the three development programmes initiated in the region, economic activities are lacking which could be attributed to the low levels of education and skills available at the household level. Consequently, Inanda has a mixed economy comprising both formal and informal structures where most of the income is derived from retail and small business;
however, there is a significant dependency on social grants and remittances to sustain households (DPLG, 2007). Additionally, the presence of heritage and historical sites such as the Inanda Dam, John Langalibalele Dube and Mahatma Ghandi sites encourage tourism- related economic activities.
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In terms of service delivery, DPLG (2007) estimate that 30% of the population lack piped water, electricity and sanitation at the household level. Furthermore, due to the increased presence of informal dwellings, the lack of access to basic domestic services could be more severe than estimated. Inanda is characterised by a young population. Furthermore, the HIV infection rate within the INK region is approximately 39%, which is regarded as the highest rate of infection in the country (DPLG, 2007).
4.2.2 Bergville region
The Bergville community is located within the Okhahlamba Municipality, along the western region of KZN. The Okhahlamba Municipality comprises private commercial farms and several small-holder settlements, which are managed by the local municipality and the Amazizi and Amangwane traditional authorities (Okhahlamba Municipality, 2013). Bergville is the economic and administrative hub of the Okhahlamba Municipality and comprises approximately seven small-holder settlements with a total population of 151 441, in 2 6674 households (SSA, 2011). According to Mthembu (2011), the population is unevenly distributed across the area with Amangwane being the most populous (Figure 4.4). The following sections provide a description of the environmental and socio-economic characteristics of Bergville.
4.2.2.1. Climatic conditions
Climatic conditions in Bergville varies throughout the year, with maximum temperatures exceeding 27.9°C during the summer months (November to February) and a minimum of - 1C during the winter months (May-July) (Okhahlamba Municipality, 2013). The region receives adequate rainfall throughout the year with an annual average of 643 mm (Mthembu, 2011).
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Figure 4.4: Main features and population density of Bergville (Author, 2016)
4.2.2.2. Socio-economic characteristics
The communities within Bergville can be described as having a youthful population, the majority of which are within the 30-40 year age category (Okhahlamba Municipality, 2013).
In terms of the historical racial composition, 97.5 % are African with smaller proportions being White (1%), Indian (1%) and Asian (0.5%) (SSA, 2011). There are more females (57%) than males in Bergville, with 38% of the population not having any formal education;
22% and 21% have some level of primary and secondary education, respectively (SSA, 2011). A small proportion of the population (10%) have completed secondary education
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(Okhahlamba Municipality, 2010). According to SSA (2011), the average unemployment rate in Bergville is 43.1%, however, this is slightly higher among the younger population groups (52.3%). Additionally, Mthembu (2011) describes Bergville as having limited levels of formal skills and high levels of unemployment. In terms of housing services and infrastructure, 41% of dwellings are formal brick structures, 3% are informal structures and the vast majority (56%) are traditional dwellings (Figure 4.5). According to Mthembu (2011), these characteristics highlight persistent poverty within the community, since housing is a basic need which contributes to the improvement of life and enables sustainable livelihood practices. Given the socio-economic, geographic and dwelling characteristics, Bergville is described as a rural community (Mthembu, 2011; SSA, 2011).
Figure 4.5: Variations in density (a & b) and dwelling type (c & d) among households in Bergville (Author, 2016)
As mentioned earlier, dwellings in Bergville vary in terms of structure and density. A few of the smaller settlements display high densities and these are generally located closer to the
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main business hubs and central business district (Figure 4.5b). The more densely populated areas also show a higher percentage of formal brick type dwellings. The outlying and more remote settlements in Bergville are sparsely populated (Figure 4.5a) and consist predominantly of traditional dwellings constructed with mud, stones and wood, and thatched roofs (Figure 4.5c). The differences in dwelling type, and more specifically the poor structural stability associated with tradition dwelling structures and roofs may present a challenge for the implementation RETs such as SWHs and PV panels, which require stable platforms for installation. Physical household characteristics, in these contexts become pertinent factors that contribute to the up-take and implementation of RETs.
Commercial and subsistence farming practices are the main activities which is supported by the local soils, relatively gentle terrain (south east to north east regions), and sufficient amounts of rainfall throughout the year (SSA, 2011; Okhahlamba Municipality, 2013).
Bergville is considered the economic and administrative hub and has been identified as the primary node for development under the Spatial Developmental Framework (SDF) (Okhahlamba Municipality, 2013). Land resources within Bergville are owned and managed on a freehold basis, under the Ingonyama Trust and private sectors, however, a major challenge impeding development in the area is attributed to 90% of land being gazetted for land restitution (Okhahlamba Municipality, 2013).
In relation to energy provision and use, most households have a formal supply of electricity;
however, there are some remote settlements that lack energy infrastructure (Okhahlamba Municipality, 2013). Statistics South Africa (2011) revealed that although electricity is the main source of supplied energy, households still rely on fuelwood for cooking and heating, and candles for lighting needs. This suggests that extensive energy hybridisation occurs within Bergville, however, there has been a notable reduction in household reliance on fuelwood and candles between 2001 and 2011 (Okhahlamba Municipality, 2013). Other commonly used sources of energy are paraffin and animal dung which have also been associated with a decline since 2001 (Okhahlamba Municipality, 2013). The Okhahlamba Municipality (2013) highlights plans to introduce SWHs, solar and biogas cookers in their development plans, and argue that these will assist in improving efficiency and safety within households.
127 4.3 Research design
4.3.1 Methodology
Research methodologies can be described as frameworks that guide the overall processes of collecting, analysing and interpreting data on specific phenomena. Leedy and Ormond (2010) state that methodologies are systematic approaches that govern the overall processes and more importantly, the choice of research tools selected. Greene (2007) defines research methodologies as the strategic approach defined by the researcher to address research questions. Similarly, Avison and Fitzgerald (1995: 63) define research methodologies as “a collection of procedures, techniques, tools and documentation aids, but a methodology is more than merely a collection of these things. It is usually based on some philosophical paradigm; otherwise it is merely a method, like a recipe”. Leedy and Ormond (2010) state that research begins with the process of inquiry which stimulates chain reactions that lead to the selection of various tools to provide more insight on particular phenomena. These processes and the initial stages of inquiry are embedded in one or more philosophical understandings of specific phenomena (Leedy & Ormond, 2010).
The systematic processes of data collection and analysis in any research endeavour is key to the development of knowledge, however, it is the philosophical slant that determines which knowledge should be accepted or rejected (Leedy & Ormond, 2010). This study investigates the socio-economic, political and spatial dimensions that define household energy access, profiles, behaviours and practices. Based on the multi-model conceptual frameworks of this study, an array of techniques were utilised to examine the energy-poverty-development nexus within rural and peri-urban communities. The sections that follow provide a detailed description of and motivation for the chosen research design, methodological approaches and tools. Additionally, the philosophical paradigms that guided the research and methodology used are also described.
4.3.2 Research philosophy and approach
Several studies highlight the importance of research paradigms in determining the processes and tools associated with any research endeavour (Naslund, 2002; Bryman & Bell, 2007;
Saunders et al., 2007). Research design involves an overview of the philosophical underpinnings that guide the systematic processes of the research endeavour, from inception, to data collection and interpretation (Saunders et al., 2007). The design of this research
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comprises interpretive positivist and phenomenological philosophies, in an attempt to understand and explain the causal relationships that exist between household energy profiles and the prevailing socio-economic, environmental and political factors. According to Mason (2000), a researcher’s ontological and epistemological position will guide the research and the methodology utilised. In order to demonstrate the entire research process, Chao (2010: 5) draws on the work of Saunders et al. (2007) who use a model referred to as the ‘research onion’ (Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6: The research onion model (source: Saunders et al., 2007: 32)
From an ontological perspective, it can be argued that reality is socially constructed and can have various meanings, thus mono-methodologies often fail to capture these complexities (Rodela et al., 2012). According to Rodela et al. (2012), the main aim of any research agenda is to unpack these realities and capture as many meanings as possible. In terms of the present research, a mixed method approach was adopted and includes the following:
Positivistic, phenomenological and an interpretivist philosophical approach that was both inductive and deductive;
Survey and case study strategy; and
Mixed method, (specifically, triangulation).
Furthermore, this study uses a cross-sectional, comparative approach to examine energy profiles in rural and peri-urban contexts. These concepts are discussed in detail in subsequent sections below.
129 4.3.2.1 Mixed methods
Combining qualitative and quantitative methods offers the advantage of offsetting biases, utilising the strengths of each and compensating for their weaknesses (Greene, 2008). The reason for using mixed methods is that they provide insights which cannot be obtained from using one method alone (Johnson & Turner, 2003). Creswell (2003) identifies six mixed method designs and his views on these are summarised in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Mixed method designs (adapted from: Creswell, 2003)
Design Focus Theory Data collection, analysis,
evaluation Sequential
explanatory
Qualitative data used to enhance and complement quantitative findings;
explaining relationships between variables.
No particular theoretical framework
Quantitative data collected and analysed first; integration of quantitative and qualitative data in evaluation.
Sequential exploratory
Quantitative data used to enhance and complement qualitative findings.
No particular theoretical framework
Qualitative data collected first and then quantitative;
quantitative results used to complement and extend qualitative findings Sequential
transformative
Quantitative or qualitative data used to ensure views and perspectives of a diverse range of participants is represented to get a better understanding of a process.
Method determines theoretical
perspective
Collecting either quantitative or qualitative first; data from quantitative and qualitative survey analysed separately and integrated in interpretation.
Concurrent triangulation
Cross-validating,
corroborating findings from single study.
No particular theoretical framework
Quantitative and qualitative data collected together; data are analysed separately and integrated in interpretation.
Concurrent nested design
Embedding one kind of data into the other when studying different levels or units of an organisation.
No particular theoretical framework
Quantitative and qualitative data collected concurrently and analysed together and mixed;
various strategies used such as developing typologies or transforming into narratives.
Concurrent transformative
Using quantitative or qualitative data together.
Clearly defined theoretical
perspective guiding methodology
Quantitative and qualitative data collected concurrently and analysed together and mixed.
In terms of Creswell’s (2003) design methods, the approach adopted in this study can be described as concurrent triangulation which uses both qualitative and quantitative data sources. The use of quantitative and qualitative data sources provided a more holistic understanding of household energy preferences, choices and behaviours. As mentioned in Chapter 2 the use of the political economy and household energy behaviour conceptual frameworks in the conceptual model for this study, imply that there are multiple determinants
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of energy profiles, especially within marginalised households. The use of both quantitative and qualitative techniques highlights the experiences, values, processes as well as trends and relationships between variables. Shaffer (2013) highlights the extensive history of mixed method approaches in poverty and development research, especially in developing studies.
Each of these approaches adds new perspectives to the research processes and warrants the need for more detailed methodologies in understanding specific phenomena.
Several studies highlight the increasing importance of mixed methods and triangulation as a means of investigating phenomena that are influenced by multiple factors, and have the potential to manifest differentially across socio-economic and geographic gradients (Amaratunga et al., 2002; Creswell, 2003; Johnson et al., 2007; Denscombe, 2008). This study therefore embraces the call to examine social and technologically related topic using this methodological approach (Pachuari et al., 2004; Mulugetta, 2008; Mondal et al., 2010;
Rehman et al., 2012). The study of solar energy in the context of socio-economic and spatial characteristics provides an opportunity to explore the use of multiple methods.
4.3.2.2 Quantitative and qualitative (Q2) methods
Qualitative research provides knowledge of how the world is constructed and it aims to provide a deeper understanding of social phenomena (McLeod, 2001; Silverman, 2001).
Denzin and Lincoln (2005) suggest that qualitative research is a process where experiences and perceptions on various phenomena are interpreted in their natural settings, so as to understand and extract the value and meaning people attach to specific phenomena. Similarly, Creswell and Clark (2007) assert that qualitative methods and its causal philosophies are essential in understanding personal and social issues. Tavallaei and Talib (2010) posit that qualitative methods are relevant to studies where issues such as gender, race, and socio- economic status are important variables. Petty et al. (2012) argue that research findings generated from qualitative studies are context specific and therefore prevent generalisation.
As highlighted in Chapter 2, energy behaviour, needs and prioritisation are influenced by factors such as values, beliefs, culture and materialistic wants, which highlights the role of the individual. The qualitative methods used in this study, include focus group discussions, open-ended questions in the survey instrument and participatory mapping to understand household energy use, behaviour and needs. Additionally, validation of data trends and relationships are executed by adopting the relevant quantitative approaches, which are discussed in detail below.