Democracy is discussed here, with an emphasis on it as a value and it as a social process as its main distinctions, other than as a political practice. For the social process aspect, universal human rights entail the rights and freedoms of individuals as stipulated in the constitutional laws of different countries. The social aspect shall be discussed
interchangeably with values because they are closely related. According to Kelly (1995) democracy is a moral system that bears the core principles of any social institution.
Furthermore, Cawthra et al. (2007) postulate that democracy, as value, is linked to freedom, human dignity, justice and tolerance. Lindberg (2006) outlines democratic qualities to include equal political participation, freedom of political competition and legitimacy of self-
79 government. The above authors, therefore, outline democratic value in slightly different ways; however the meanings overlap.
In terms of democracy as a value and a social process, education as a political tool and a social right is used to support or promote the democratic forms of any society or institution (Kelly, 1995). Therefore, education has to assist in maintaining, protecting and developing democratic forms of living in order to ensure that its products are effective citizens who can contribute meaningfully to social and political life. For Cawthra et al. (2007) in the African context, democratic value is linked with individual human worth, which promotes respect and not being violent. Traditional leaders in the past used to promote democratic values through their cultural norms, often seen in the songs, proverbs, prayers and ceremonies and in customary laws based on the rights and duties of subjects and rulers and are provided for constitutional democracy currently (Cawthra et al. 2007). The principles to be discussed as values for democracy are grouped as natural rights, equality, freedom and popular
sovereignty, which sum up all those mentioned by Cawthra et al. (2007) and Lindberg (2006).
3.4.1 Natural Rights
All people have natural rights that entitle them to certain levels of treatment such as the right to be treated humanely and with dignity. A right is explained as a legal term that allows people to perform certain things that are supported by the system of laws for a specific society (Kelly, 1995). The notion of democracy as a way of life is regarded as a moral value;
therefore, it goes without saying that it also offers an acceptable form of morality that forms the core principle for social living. Kelly (1995) has argued that people are entitled to certain natural rights, irrespective of their title, meaning that people have rights whether they are a king, a subject, a citizen or any common person. These rights include the right to equal treatment, because all people are created equally. Men and women are born free;
therefore, they should exercise their right to live with equal rights that promote their dignity as people (Cawthra et al., 2007; Government of Lesotho, 1993; Kelly, 1995). These rights are clearly stipulated in accordance with the UN (1948).
Examples of equal treatment extend to the right to own property, which permits every person to own property irrespective of their title, the right to personal liberty, the right to
80 security, the right to equality before the law, and the right of association such as in political parties. The above rights promote the good conditions of a good society (Kelly, 1995) and a democratic society has to recognize, respect and meet the needs of all its citizens. There is also a right to liberty, a right to security and a right to resist oppression, among others. All these rights are equal for different citizens. That is to say, all people are born equal;
therefore they should be given equal treatment as explained in the next section.
3.4.2 Equality
If all people are born equal (Kelly, 1995), then, in the same manner as people have natural rights, the emphasis of equality is on how people, as individuals, should be treated. In other words, all people have to be treated in the same way. According to Lindberg (2006), political democracy requires equal political participation for all citizens. This is to enable good voter turnout that assists in minimising voter apathy and encourages full participation in
elections. This is because, for Lindberg (2006), elections enhance democratic qualities and deepen civil liberties in the society.
However, it is argued that there are unavoidable inequalities between people in any society.
This is in regard to how people perform certain activities using their capabilities, skills, talents and so on (Kelly, 1995). Thus, if people are not the same, they will have different occupations. However, the equality that is talked of, as a value, is the way people ought to be treated. For instance, Kelly (1995) is of the opinion that all people require fair and impartial treatment in all aspects of social living such as education, health and other
essential services provided. Therefore, people should be accorded equal opportunities in all aspects, especially of education. Hazoume (1999), for example, outlines that women should also be accorded the chance to participate fully in societal activities and not be excluded from decision making processes on issues that affect them. In relation to this is freedom as a value, discussed in the next section.
3.4.3 Freedom
Freedom is another attribute that should be allowed within people, meaning that it is autonomous. For an individual to feel free as a person, he or she has to exercise that freedom such as freedom of political competition in a political democracy, without threats and intimidation (Lindberg, 2006). Democratic value needs tolerance of diversity and
81 universality, argues Cawthra et al. (2007). This freedom may include, and not be limited to, freedom of speech, freedom of thought, freedom of opinion, freedom of movement and freedom of behavior. This also shows the complete humanity of people when they exercise their freedom as human beings (Kelly, 1995). Furthermore, people need to be free from abuse by others, free from any harm or dangers, and free from any restrictions, unless such restraints that are imposed are for a good reason and can be justified as such (Kelly, 1995).
In a political democracy, civil societies also have to exercise their freedom to place checks and balances on the power of the government and control the abuse of power. Even though civil society groups are less powerful than the government, they have to be able to freely give their opinions and input on issues affecting their lives. During the traditional leadership era, people exercised their freedom of speech in a pitso and at khotla under the direct democracy that was provided by chiefs as leaders. Freedom of opinion requires the free availability of knowledge and information to all citizens (Hazoume, 1999; Kelly, 1995) for them to reach informed conclusions and decisions on issues of public and popular concern.
3.4.4 Popular Sovereignty
There should be a full participation of every member of society in the choice of their
government and in decision making processes (Kelly, 1995). On the same note, those chosen through elections or appointed randomly should be held responsible and accountable for their decisions and be kept under some kind of control through checks and balances that restrict the abuse of power (Kelly, 1995). This democratic value tallies with ensuring the legitimacy of self-government, as outlined by Lindberg (2006), and a peaceful participation process for citizens, such as in the pre-election campaigning up to the post-election period of accepting an outcome.
In an electoral democracy, for instance, procedures for representation determine the legitimacy and popular sovereignty of being fair and just, and of following good procedures in principle (Lindberg, 2006). This then means that low political participation may signal low support for democracy. Furthermore, Cawthra et al. (2007, p. 4) indicate that democracy, as a social process, implies access to fundamental human rights and civil liberties for all, as emanating from the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN, 1948), as follows:
• The fundamental right of the human person to life, dignity and security,
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• Freedom of religions, assembly, expression, the press and conscience
• Economic, social and cultural rights – idea of democracy as a means of satisfying and responding to basic human needs (social democracy) and
• The right to political self-determination.
According to Hazoume (1999), social democracy, which he also terms cultural democracy, implies the right to education, the right to live a decent life, the right to health protection and the right to a healthy environment. He outlines further that, there should be a right to be different, which calls for tolerance and observing diversity. For Hazoume, the citizens’
involvement in building a democratic society must be based upon a deep understanding of the concepts and all that they imply, hence, the importance of information to be given and education to be provided (Hazoume, 1999). The following is the table developed as a conceptual framework, drawing from the key theories of democracy as discussed in the literature review section, which is also used as an analysis tool in Chapter Five.
Table 5: Conceptual Framework for Democracy DEMOCRACY
Emphases/aspects of democracy
Value (Blatter, 2008;
Cawthra et al., 2007;
Hazoume, 1999; Kelly, 1995; Lindberg, 2006;
Matlosa, 2008; Pacho, 2013)
Social process (Blatter, 2008; Cawthra et al., 2007; McQuoid-Mason et al., 1994; Hazoume, 1999; Jarvis, 2008; Kelly, 1995; Lindberg, 2006;
Matlosa, 2008)
Political practice (Blatter, 2008;
Bohman, 1996;
Cawthra et al., 2007;
Held, 2006; Kelly, 1995; McGregor, 2004)
Examples of democracy theories
Communitarian democracy
Liberal democracy and electoral democracy
Republicanism and deliberative democracy Participation Collective and voluntary
in family, church etc
Rights and freedoms of citizens; stresses individuality
Political and direct decisions and in civil society organisations Citizen
responsibility
Limited responsibilities by citizens, good and interconnected as a society/community
Limited responsiveness by citizens, emphasizes citizens legal rights and obligations under framework of law
Full responsibility by citizens
Republicans put state first
83 Citizens’ roles Obey and respect laws,
leaders, act collectively
Elect representatives to look after their interests
Actively participate in policymaking decisions
Institutions Family, church, khotla,
public gathering
Executive government, legislature/parliament/
judiciary
Political/public assembly
This study seeks to discover participants’ understandings of democracy and citizenship, and to learn how they developed such knowledge, looking at their opinions about the past traditional leadership to the current democratic era. Since traditional leadership is still a feature of democracy in Lesotho, it is important to provide a comprehensive explanation of Lesotho’s traditional regime and how it interfaced with Lesotho’s transition to modern democracy.