37 The next section examines the international perspective on civic education that derives primarily from Western values. It can be seen that there are some overlaps with African perspectives in terms of the contribution to community life.
38 (1997), Weatherman (1984) and Mahafza (2014) formal education that also entails
community service plays a key role to developing democratic citizenship in America.
According to Dahal (2002, p. 4), in the context of Nepal, the primary work of civic education is to create “civic culture”, which is committed to broaden and deepen democracy in the public and private lives of the country’s citizens. Dahal (2002, p. 4) further notes that civic education serves to “widen the relationships among individuals, communities and the nation.” In his observations, civic education in Nepal was introduced as an optional subject into the school’s curriculum, due to the realization that the Nepalese patrimonial nature of political leadership was unable to become either truly representative of the society or responsive to the citizens’ needs. Dahal (2002, p. 8) concludes that the Nepalese
experienced the cultural shift from “sovereignty of the state” to the “sovereignty of the people”, from representative democracy to participatory democracy, in an effort to liberate its citizenship.
In the UK, Nepal, Turkey and Greece, civic education is provided to encourage people to reconnect with their communities and with the government (promotion of active
citizenship); to prepare citizens to rule and be ruled (Andrews & Cowell, 2005; Crittenden, 2007; Ersoy, 2014). According to Andrews and Cowell, Crittenden and Ersoy civic education is seen as informal and non-formal educational means, with learning or promotional activities that are done locally by local councils, to increase people’s participation and involvement in democratic processes (Andrews & Cowell, 2005; Yucel, 2013).
In most countries like Great Britain, the United States, Poland, Nepal, Argentina and others, citizenship education is offered in schools as a form of civic education to promote personal and political development and to promote national identity (Astiz & Mendez, 2001;
Crittenden, 2007; Dahal, 2002; Faulks, 2006; Gutmann, 1987; Mahafza, 2014; Meyers, 2003;
Ritter, 2013; USAID, 2002). Political participation is strongly emphasized with content that includes, but is not limited, to the following: how a democratic system works, knowledge of rights and obligations, purpose and procedure of elections, development of public
community and the virtues needed (Andrews & Cowell, 2005; Crittenden, 2007; Dahal, 2002; Gutmann, 1987; Mahafza, 2014; Meyers, 2003). For instance, in America civic education is provided to children to assist them in skills and attitude development that is
39 needed for effective voicing of opinions and for acting on their beliefs (see global citizenship curriculum below). As Adams (2003) states, civic education begins at an early stage, where children develop a sense of personal responsibility, learn that they can make a difference in their lives and in their communities, and become cognizant of the value of their
participation (Adams, 2003; Downs, 2012; Schaub, 2012). Schlesinger (2006) supports Adams, but goes a step further to show that when teaching children the history of
democracy, it is important to make them see government in action by encouraging them to meet with their elected officials.
In Malaysia, community participation, like in the United States, was found by Farouk and Husin (2011) to have increased students’ understanding of public policy and of the general democratic processes. They also found that the use of their rights as citizens promoted better functioning of their communities.
Gutmann (1987) is of the opinion, however, that although civic education is commonly provided in schools through formal settings, it is also offered through informal settings like in families, communities, libraries, churches, workplaces, civic organisations, unions, sports teams, campaigns and elections, mass media and others. Gutmann (1987) further notes that these formal and informal provisions integrate with each other for effective civic education, since informal settings and methods are associated with political socialization and help prepare citizens for public participation and engagement. The above contentions by Gutmann are examined in the context of Lesotho in order to see how Basotho have developed their knowledge of democracy and citizenship.
According to Hughes (2006), countries with strong democracies are characterized by strong and independent civil society, trade unions, business, media, church and civic movements.
Hughes asserts that the diverse elements of civil society represent and articulate the interests of their specific constituencies, support and membership bases, and serve as alternative and competing centres of power and political influence. He further notes that the diverse media also serve as a powerful check on the abuse of public power, and in that way media is less manipulated in these countries.
Sears (2008), in a study of ‘Children’s understandings of democratic participation lessons for civic education’, contends that in any learning environment, prior knowledge has to be
40 considered by those who provide education. This means that people who teach or provide information about civic education should recognise that learners already have knowledge with regard to what they have to learn. Sears (2008) and Jarvis (2008) affirm that learners’
schema in a learning situation may sift through any information that they receive and accept the knowledge, twist it or adjust it. In this instance learning has to be repeated for learners to grasp the intended outcome. Sears (2008) goes ahead to emphasise the need for
effective pedagogical approaches which should allow for numerous outlooks or focus on increasing deep understanding of the content so that learners can engage in their situations in an inspiring manner.
Sears postulates that learners have to be taken seriously and their full potential developed in a learning situation. In addition, the author contends that materials have to be linked and attached to reality rather than being taught in an abstract manner. This enhances more understanding and sound judgement within learners, especially if the information provided is correct, provided in collaborative ways where they are engaged in problem solving and is applicable in their environment. It follows, therefore, that civic educators have to be
knowledgeable in terms of what they teach as content and also respect leaners’ knowledge and build on their past experiences (Jarvis, 2008; Sears, 2008). Sears (2008) states that in a learning situation context matters, meaning that for civic education ‘one size does not fit all.’ There are various social and cultural differences that outline citizens’ knowledge, attitudes and skills; hence the need for a curriculum that fits different contexts and that is learnt and taught differently. Therefore, this study seeks to observe the extent to which Lesotho’s civic education programmes address these pedagogical concerns.
According to the curriculum offered by Oxfam (2006), civic education is provided for the purpose of enhancing the development of skills, knowledge, values and attitudes of different people in order for them to exercise their capability in life. Oxfam further notes that civic education enables the younger generation to become resilient throughout their life span. This enables people to become critical citizens about complex global issues. The curriculum, as stipulated in Oxfam (2006), involves knowledge and understanding, skills development, values and attitudes that are offered to different age groups, as illustrated in Table 2 below:
41 Table 2: Curriculum for Global Citizenship
1. Knowledge and Understanding
Topics Foundation
(less than 5 years)
Ages 5 – 7 years
Ages 7 – 11 years
Ages 11 – 14 years
Ages 14 – 19 years Social justice &
equality
What is fair/
unfair, right/wrong
Awareness of rich &
poor
Fairness between groups
Inequalities within societies, basic rights
Causes of poverty, understanding global debates Diversity Awareness of
similarities &
difference
Greater awareness of
similarities
& difference
Contribution of different cultures, values to lives
Understanding of diversity issues
Deeper understanding of different cultures &
societies Globalization &
interdependence
Awareness of different places
Sense of wider world, links
between places
Trade between countries
Awareness of political system &
others
Power relations- South/North, complex global issues Sustainable
development
Living things
& their needs
Awareness of past &
future
Awareness of finite
resources
Different views of socio- economic dev.
Lifestyles for sustainable world Peace and
conflict
Actions have consequence
Cause of conflict
Impact of conflict
Relationship of conflict &
peace
Complexity of conflict issues
& resolution 2. Skills
Critical thinking Listening to others, ask questions
Developing enquiring mind
Detecting bias, opinion, stereotypes
Making informed decisions
Critically analyzing information Ability to argue
effectively
Expressing a view
Begin to state opinion
Begin to state a reasonable case
Learn to develop argument
Political literacy Ability to
challenge justice
Begin to identify unfairness
Identify unfairness &
take action
Recognize &
start to challenge unfairness
Start to challenge viewpoints
Take action against inequality Respect for
things
Start to think of others
Making links in lives
Make choices recognize consequences
Grow ability to take care of things
Campaigning for justice and equitable world Cooperation &
conflict resolution
Sharing, Cooperating, participating
Tact and diplomacy, include others
Compromising, accepting &
acting on a group decision
Negotiation Negotiation, mediation, conflict resolution 3. Values and Attitudes
Sense of identity Sense of identity &
self-worth
Awareness of and pride in
individuality
Sense of importance of individual worth
Open- mindedness
Open- mindedness
42 Empathy,
humanity
Concern for others in immediate circle
Interest in and concern for others in wider sphere
Empathy towards others locally and globally
Compassion, sensitivity to the needs &
rights of others
Sense of humanity &
collective responsibility Commitment to
social justice &
equality
Sense of fair play
Willingness to speak up for others
Sense of justice
Concern for justice &
equality
Commitment to social justice, equality Value & respect
for diversity
Positive attitude towards diversity
Willingness to learn from others’
experiences
Growing respect for diversity &
difference
Respecting the rights of all to have a point of view
Valuing all people as equal &
different Concern for
environment, commitment to sustainable dev.
Sense of wonder &
curiosity
Care for the environmen, begin to value things
Sense of responsibility for the environment
Concern about effects of our lifestyles on people
Commitment to sustainable development Beliefs that
people can make a difference
Willingness to admit to learn from mistakes
Awareness of action and results, participate
Belief that things can be better, people can make a difference
Willingness to take a stand on global issues
Willingness to work towards equitable future.
According to Oxfam (2006) the above topics are effective when using participatory methods such as debates and discussions, role plays, ranking exercises and communities of enquiry.
Oxfam illustrates that civic education provides the opportunity for people to explore,
develop and express their values, views and opinions while listening to and respecting other people’s viewpoints (Oxfam, 2006). It can be seen that this curriculum is comprehensive in that it addresses different topics across all ages from the foundation level up until the stage of early adulthood; the topics that are included continue to be practiced into adulthood. In this Lesotho study the participants were asked to discuss the values that they were brought up with and these were compared with what Oxfam provided and is further discussed in Chapter Seven.
Similar to Oxfam’s curriculum for citizenship education, as a cross curricular project that is taught in different schools globally, Rietbergen-McCracken proposes the following as a curriculum for civic education, summarized as follows:
… Civic knowledge refers to understanding of the workings of political systems and of their own civic rights and responsibilities [rights to freedom of expression, to vote, run for public office, responsibilities to respect the rule of law, rights and interest of others]. Civic skills refer to citizens’ ability to analyse, evaluate, take and defend
43 positions on public issues, to use the knowledge to participate in civic and political processes [monitor government performance, to mobilize other citizens around particular issues]. Civic dispositions are traits necessary for democracy [tolerance, public spiritedness, civility, critical mindedness, willingness to listen, negotiation and compromise] (Rietbergen-McCracken, Undated, p. 1).
The similarity of these points to the ones that are entailed in the curriculum (displayed in Table 2 above) by Oxfam is clear. These points form the basis of the focus in this study that seeks to understand how people understand democracy and citizenship with implications for civic education provision in Lesotho.
The issues discussed in the above curricula are offered in formal schools of different western and eastern countries through world alliance networks (CIVNET, CIVCOM, and Service Learning) as part of the formal curriculum, while Informal civic education is provided through information sharing activities in civil society groups. According to Rietbergen-
McCracken (Undated) civic education is also provided as voter education and community mobilization for the vulnerable groups of the poor about their social and political rights. It is often utilized by the public sector to improve the democratic functioning of local
government or political parties. Civic education is sometimes provided in conjunction with capacity building through engaging in dialogues (such as communicating with leaders), holding forums and campaigns that are likely to strengthen the capacity possessed by citizens and civil society groups on how to organize themselves, interact with other groups and citizens and ultimately make their voices heard by those in authority.
Rietbergen-McCracken, when referring to various civic education curricula, explains that civic education is delivered by civil society groups such as non-governmental organisations, community based organisations, and faith based organisations, media organisations, education institutions, the private sector, government agencies and international development organisations. The tools used to offer civic education include seminars, workshops, focus group discussions, drama, role plays, television programmes, radio, participatory and cooperative methods of learning such as informal teaching and
information sharing (Rietbergen-McCracken, Undated). Rietbergen-McCracken outlines that training of trainers and peer-to-peer programmes are also used where civic education is disseminated, showing other ways of offering continuous learning opportunities. Although
44 Oxfam (2006), Rietbergen-McCracken (Undated) and UNESCO (2006) provide internationally available materials for civic education, the experience of civic education practice in African countries is varied and inconsistent.