2.5. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SERVICES RENDERED TO THE VICTIMS OF SEXUAL OFFENCES
2.5.7 Effective developments of rape crisis centres in dealing with sexual crime survivors
In the early 1970s, Rape Crisis Centres (RCCs) were developed to specifically meet the needs of sexual assault survivors and their partners by providing hotlines, crisis interventions, support groups, and individualised therapy (Burt, Zweig, Schlichter, &
Andrews, 2000). RCCs began as organisations that were intentionally independent (termed freestanding) from other social service agencies. Over time, many RCCs folded, merged, or were implemented by other organisations such as domestic violence shelters or social service systems. One of the RCCs’ goals is to be accessible and supportive to individuals and their partners or families affected by sexual assault (Ake & Arnold, 2017).
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The RCCs focus on social change initiatives such as eliminating society’s tolerance of sexual offence and violence, through community education, protests, speak-outs, lobbying, and training other professional agencies on how to improve responsiveness to survivors (Ahrens, Campbell, Ternier-Thames, Wasco, & Sefl, 2007). The RCCs identified that the assistance, which must be administered to survivors, vary by age, ethnicity, socio-economic status, and gender. Hence, the services which are provided by the RCCs are designed to meet the unique needs of a wider range of survivors.
Advocacy is an essential service to offer survivors, who are navigating through the medical and legal systems. Survivors are likely to experience strong emotions or feelings of being socially rejected or isolated and thus may seek counselling or support groups. Therefore, RCCs provide a complete range of services to meet the multiple needs of survivors. Many RCCs mobilise their efforts for social change by lobbying to change sexual assault laws and increase victim rights, raising awareness of sexual violence among the public and professionals, and improving the response to survivors (Burt et al., 2000).
2.5.7.1 Sexual assault resource centres
Lovett, Regan, and Kelly (2014) report that some rape crisis centres, such as the Sexual Assault Resource Centre (SARC) in Memphis, Tennessee, perform medical examinations and collect forensic evidence for all rape victims (except those with severe physical injuries). In addition, their rape crisis counsellors may act as liaisons between the medical and legal system. Advocates working with the Seattle Rape Relief programme take down the victims’ impact statements at sentencing, if the victim so wishes (Riboson & Hudson, 2011). Rape crisis counsellors may provide special support to victims at the law enforcement agencies or the prosecutors' offices. In USA states that recognise victim interactions with rape crisis counsellors as privileged communications, rape crisis counsellors can offer victims confidentiality and privilege in the sector house of advocates. For example, rape crisis counsellors may be able to accompany victims during interviews that take place during investigation with prosecutors (Riboson & Hudson, 2011).
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2.5.7.2 The legal advocacy coordinator for the King County Sexual Assault Resource Centres
The King County Sexual Assault Resource Centres (KCSARC) in the USA located in Regus, Washington, offers victims all relevant information about the criminal justice system and legal support, should they decide to report the crime. The KCSARC's experience suggests that although victims may not want to report or have evidence collected in the immediate aftermath of the rape, they may change their minds a few days later (Molesworth, 2007). The KCSARC encourages victims to seek immediate medical care, which may include an examination after the rape, so that any problems resulting from the sexual assault will receive immediate attention and the victim is assured that she is physically sound or recovering (Krieger, Takaro, Song, Beaudet,
& Edward, 2009). While evidence gathering is not the primary reason for the victim to seek medical attention, having the examination taking place ensures that evidence is collected, which enhances the chance to open a case and report the crime, if the victims decide at a later stage to report the crime (Krieger et al., 2009).
2.5.7.3 Rape assistance and awareness programme
The Rape Assistance and Awareness Programme [RAAP] in Denver, USA, was founded in 1983 for initiations of programmes that were appropriate for learner audiences ranging from preschool age through to senior high school. In programmes for younger children, a short play teaches assertiveness, appropriate and inappropriate touch, and how to report sexual abuse (Asher, Huffaker, & McNally, 1994). The programmes also train parents and teachers to encourage assertiveness in their children, how to detect sexual abuse, and how to support children if they are victimised. The junior and senior high school programmes feature an invited speaker, who leads a group discussion on a range of topics. These topics include defining consent; myths and facts surrounding sexual assault; the dynamics of acquaintance and date rape; the motivations behind blaming victims; how to get help in case of a sexual assault; and how to provide support to friends who have been sexually assaulted (Myers, Templer, & Brown, 1984).
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The RAAP (1983) also offers self-defence programmes, which cover resisting attacks, home safety, assertiveness training, and psychological preparedness. Businesses and apartment complexes have contracted with the RAAP for these courses. Their premise was that it needed a growing awareness of the prevalence and threat of sexual assault and the growing number of civil suits brought against property owners and employers on whose premises rapes occurred (Asher et al., 1994).