2.5. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SERVICES RENDERED TO THE VICTIMS OF SEXUAL OFFENCES
2.5.5 Promoting and preventing sexual offences within communities
Chilisa and Ntseane (2010) explained that the relationship between gender and violence was complex. The different roles and behaviours regarding females and males, children as well as adults, are shaped and reinforced by gender norms within society. Dutton, Green, Kaltman, Roesch, Zeffiro, and Krause (2006) report that social expectations define the appropriate behaviour for women and men. The differences in gender roles and behaviours often create inequalities, whereby one gender becomes empowered to the disadvantage of the other. Pence, Paymar, and Ritmeester (1993) state that in many societies women were viewed as being and remaining inferior and subordinate to men, and having a lower social status, allowing men the control over them and their lives, and ensuring that men had the greater decision-making power than women.
Inequalities between the genders also tend to increase the risk of violent acts by men against women. At the same time, achieving gender equality has been a critical part of institutions aiming to reduce or even prevent gender violence. Their interventions included interventions that confront the entrenched beliefs and cultural norms, from which gender inequalities develop, and efforts to engage all sectors of society in redressing these inequalities. Despite the long history and high visibility of such measures, however, few have been subject to any kind of scientific evaluation (Glasier Gülmezoglu, Schmid, Moreno, & Van Look, 2006) and Ritmeester (1993).
2.5.5.1 School-based interventions
Foubert and Newberry (2006) believe that school-based interventions were important as they addressed gender norms and the issue of equality during the early stages of the youth (16-21-year-olds) and young children (5-15-year-olds), before gender stereotypes become deeply ingrained in their perceptions and attitudes or behaviour.
Several initiatives should also address gender norms, dating violence and sexual abuse among children and youth or young adults. The school interventions’ aim is to disseminate knowledge, and challenge or reduce the level of the various forms of violence among communities.
52
These forms of violence are very wide-ranging and for more effective impact on the young males and females to change their skewed narrative, they should be delivered in multiple sessions over time rather than in a single session to change attitudes and norms rather than simply providing information (Foubert & Newberry, 2006). Campbell (2002) highlights that South Africa developed group interventions for learners in Grade 5 to Grade 8 (10-14-year-olds). These interventions encouraged boys to stop domestic and sexual violence towards women and girls, and to become responsible adults, brothers, uncles, husbands and fathers. In Ontario, Canada, various projects addressing youth relationships were developed, which were community-based interventions to help at-risk young females and males (14-16-year-olds) to develop healthy, non-abusive relationships with dating partners. These projects provided education about the difference between healthy and abusive relationships; conflict resolution and communication skills; and social action activities.
A randomised controlled trial showed that the interventions were effective in reducing incidents of physical and emotional abuse, and over a 16-month period after the interventions, reduced symptoms of emotional distress (Graham-Bermann, Lynch, Banyard, DeVoe, & Halabu, 2007). In the USA, the project referred to as the ‘Mentors in Violence Prevention Programmes’ provides six or seven two-hour educational sessions to male and female high school learners and college students, in mixed or single-sex groups. Learners and students are taught to identify the different types of abuse, gender stereotypes and society’s attitude towards violence against women. In addition, role-playing helps participants to confront sexist attitudes and actively prevent violence (Campbell, Patterson, & Bybee, 2012). Weisz and Black (2009) share that an evaluation of this programme, which was conducted in 10 schools, examined the knowledge and attitudes of participants before and two to five months after the programme had taken place. They found that participants’ knowledge of violence against women significantly increased after the programme compared to members of a control group.
53 2.5.5.2 Community interventions
According to the World Health Organisation [WHO] (2009), community interventions aimed to change not only the way individuals think and behave, but also to mobilise entire villages or districts in efforts to eradicate violence against women. Community interventions dealing with gender-based violence are aimed at improving women’s employment opportunities, increase their influence in household decisions and their ability to resolve marital conflicts, strengthen their social networks and reduce HIV transmission. In Uganda, the ‘Raising Voices and the Centre for Domestic Violence Prevention’ project group runs a community initiative for males and females, designed to challenge gender norms, and thereby prevent violence being committed against women and children.
Marotta (2017) states that this includes raising the awareness of domestic violence, which is often suffered in silence, and building networks of support for victims and action within the community and professional sectors. Community activities such as theatre, discussions and door-to-door visit and using radio, television and newspapers are all utilised to promote women’s rights. An early review of the programme after it had run for two years suggested that all forms of intimate partner violence had decreased in the community (Flood, 2003).
A number of initiatives involving microfinance have also been established to increase women’s economic and social power. These provide small loans to mobilise resources for income-generating projects, which can alleviate poverty, while microfinance programmes can also operate as discrete entities to incorporate education sessions and skills-building workshops and thereby help change gender norms, improve communication in relationships and empower women (Mann, Hanson, & Thornton, 2010).
2.5.5.3 Media interventions
Campbell (2006) state that media interventions addressing the topic of gender-based violence used television, radio, the internet, newspapers, magazines, and other printed publications to reach a wide range of people and effect change within society.
These media aim to increase knowledge, challenge attitudes, and modify behaviour.
Successful media interventions can help to alter social norms and values, including the belief that masculinity is associated with aggression, through public discussion and
54
social interaction. Media campaigns have proven successful in increasing knowledge of intimate partner violence and influencing attitudes towards gender norms, but less is known about their ability to reduce violent behaviour, as it is difficult to measure potential changes in levels of violence associated with media interventions.
According to the WHO (2009), ‘Soul City’ is one of the best known and carefully evaluated media programmes in South Africa, which uses a series of radio and television episodes to highlight violence between intimate partners, date rape and sexual harassment, among other social problems. The Soul City series is accompanied by information booklets that are distributed nationally. An evaluation of the fourth series, which focused on gender-based violence, used a random sample of the national population and conducted two sets of interviews, eight months apart, before and after the intervention. That study reported an association between exposure to the ‘Soul City’ series and changes in knowledge and attitudes towards intimate partner violence’ (Usdin, Scheeper, & Goldstein, 2005). A number of campaigns have targeted men specifically, aiming to challenge traditional concepts of masculinity associated with aggression and violence.
The promotion of gender equality is an essential part of violence prevention. A range of school, community and media interventions aim to promote gender equality and non-violent relationships by addressing gender stereotypes that allow men more power and control over women. These include some well-evaluated interventions, but more evaluations are needed that establish whether there had been actual violent behaviour as an outcome rather than improvements in attitude or knowledge, whose relation to violent behaviour may be unknown.
2.5.5.4 Academic and research approaches
Chilisa and Ntseane (2010) stated that academic and research institutions can contribute specific expertise and technical skills to programming, especially in the areas of research, data analysis, monitoring, evaluation, documentation, and dissemination of findings can be engaged to provide guidance on evidence-based programming approaches towards informing the design and implementation of interventions and optimising results.
55
Foubert et al. (2006) highlighted that data can be collected on a number of important elements, such as the nature and extent of violence being committed against women and girls; the consequences and costs related to violence; the help-seeking behaviour of survivors; the responses by different sectors towards survivors and perpetrators;
and the knowledge, attitudes and practices of various groups. Information collected through research and published documents can assist other institutions and their research into sexual crimes, where they have been charged with responsibilities for implementing the law or targeted interventions among many other groups, depending on the specific policy or programme needs. Data can also be disaggregated for more detailed information by age, residence (Urban versus rural) and other characteristics.
Systems for regular data collection and analysis can involve partnerships between government, international organisations, civil society, and academic or research institutions at both the national and sub-national level (Campbell, 2006).