CHAPTER 3 THE PERIODIC TABLE, ENGAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND
3.6 ENGAGEMENT LEARNING STRATEGY
acquiring new skills and additional knowledge, Havik and Westergård (2019:12) indicates that teacher and learners are mastery-oriented. They then create a mastery-oriented classroom.
Learners in these mastery-oriented classrooms have higher energy levels, lower degree of anxiety, increased interest in class, increased motivation due to achievement and high achievement goals (Harackiewicz et al., 2002). Therefore, become proficient to master of content.
There is a strong correlation between mastery orientation and teachers’ emotional support. The higher the level of teacher emotional support, the higher the levels of mastery orientation (Havik
& Westergård, 2019).
Assessment achievement scores
Assessment scores are useful ways to measure whether or not learners are learning. High performance on activities, tasks, tests, exams are usually evidence that new knowledge and skills have been gained. Nevertheless, research has found that learner engagement is a strong indicator to predict a person’s learning performance (Taylor et al., 2016).
The results of a study by Nystrand and Gamoran (1991) on measuring learners’ in-depth understanding revealed that substantive engagement (cognitive engagement) was related positively to achievement test scores.
It is important to note that the interest learners show, and their mastery demonstrated in their field of study depend mainly on how they were taught (Ojogan & Oganwu, 2006, Schunk, 2005).
Today, keeping learners engaged and motivated is a necessity for learning (Saeed & Zyngier, 2012: 261-262).
the teacher to enhance engagement and learning based on research are discussed in sections 3.6.1 to 3.6.5.
Effective pacing
Effective pacing strategy is a combination of steps to ensure the learning process is not too slow or too fast. Due to exposure to innovative ideas and computer games, the brains of the current generation of learners have been trained to pick up and process new information at a much faster speed. Therefore, they get bored when they come to the traditional classroom set up (Nunley, 2006:37-38). Hence, teachers who want to hold their learners’ attention should consider utilising effective pacing strategies that increase engagement.
One way to focus on ‘’on-task’’ behaviour is to maximise engagement in the classroom and present content in smaller units. Actions are taken to ensure learners are helped to master each learning unit before introducing more advanced learning. The list of actions as indicated by the respective researchers enhance effective pacing and assist learners in mastering learning units.
(i) The setting of clear learning goals
Since learners are said to learn better when they know what is expected, clear goals must be set and communicated. This must relate to one of the learning engagements to capture their attention right from the beginning (Gregory & Kaufeldt, 2015:14-16).
(ii) Adopting a clear, appropriate routine
Routine helps the learners to come to class with an expectation. Learning may be ineffective if teachers do not have clear and well-practised routines (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019; Marzano &
Pickering, 2010). Getting learners into groups, handing in assignments, distributing materials (Marzano & Pickering, 2010) and checking homework should be planned and included in the class routine.
(iii) Designing content in smaller units
Construct content in small, manageable units that are easy to digest (Marzano & Pickering, 2010).
This includes introducing a small unit of information at a time then learners are given time, as individuals or in small groups, to process this added information, ask, answer questions or review what they have learnt (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019).
(iv) Creating a conducive environment in the classroom
Conducive learner-teacher relationship, activities and classroom environment will support learners’ daily autonomy (Reeve, 2016:133). This can be accomplished by drawing up structural instruction, procedure, and notes with clear information that gives learners a great deal of freedom to interact and enhance engagement (Skinner & Belmont,1993:571-578).
Learner engagement may be improved through a framework that supports autonomy (Connell &
Wellborn,1991, which is the extent to which the learner can choose or self-initiate an action (Deci
& Ryan, 1987). Autonomy support influences learner behavioural engagement (Skinner &
Belmont 1993). When learners know their role in the learning process, they are focused, and work diligently on different tasks where nobody is distracted. Hence, the appropriate balance is achieved (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019).
(v) Planning for top and fast achievers
Have a set of activities prepared for learners who work fast and finish quickly. Work together with your learners toward a higher-quality level of motivation (Marzano & Pickering, 2010). Moreover, learning materials should be accessible anytime, anywhere, be it online, offline, or on mobile devices so that they can engage with it anytime (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019; Marzano & Pickering, 2010).
Arranging resources
Gather quick, accessible learning resources related to the content/lesson that learners will want to engage with frequently. Present information in formats that keep learners coming back for more, such as summarised powerpoint notes, templates, short videos, checklists, activities that stimulate real-life and infographics that summarize the lesson (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019).
(vi) Effective questioning
Effective questioning is associated with many positive engaging behaviours, that trigger interest, attention, motivation, curiosity, and problem solving in the context of cognitive engagement (Marzano & Pickering, 2010; Abla & Fraumeni, 2019). Effective questioning evolves from a variety of questions which include the use of inference questions, probing questions, transfer questions (application of knowledge), pre-planned questions, emerging questions, complex questions and use of sufficient wait time between questioning technique (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019; Walsh &
Sattes, 2016:11-12; Marzano & Pickering, 2010).
The use of questions can generate mild pressure that stimulates attention. However, the use of questioning as an engagement strategy has its own disadvantage. For instance, if one person answers a question, the others may be disengaged (Marzano & Pickering, 2010:151).
Nevertheless, there are practical and effective questioning techniques. In other words, there are possible ways to strengthen questioning techniques and to facilitate higher levels of cognitive engagement in learners (Smart & Marshall, 2013:266). The listed practical suggestions may be applied in the classrooms to strengthen questioning techniques.
(i) Questions that focus on the content
Put together questions that draw learners to focus on the content aligned with the learning goals and facilitate thinking at an appropriate cognitive level that engages all learners (Walsh & Sattes, 2016:27,32-35; Marzano & Pickering, 2010:151-152).
(ii) Analytic (reasoning) questions
Formulate questions that encourage learners to elaborate on ideas, a typical characteristic of cognitive engagement. In science classes, questioning is a potential integral component for an effective classroom atmosphere (Smart & Marshall, 2013:250-251).
(iii) Creative questioning technique
Arouse learners’ inductive reasoning by asking creative questions and give each learner the opportunity to creatively write down their questions or answer the question(s) and not just listen to others. To achieve this, each learner should write answers or questions on sheets of paper, and this increases the number of engaged learners by developing their answers (Cangelosi, 1984:471- 472) to questions.
Physical movement incorporation
Previous studies have demonstrated that implementing physical activity in the school increases learners’ physical activity levels and stimulates on-task behaviour (Bartholomew & Jowers, 2011;
Mahar et al., 2006; Riley et al., 2015). It also lifts their energy level, deepens understanding of content and stimulates the entire class (Donnelly & Lambourne, 2011; Marzano & Pickering, 2010) and improves learning outcomes (Donnelly & Lambourne, 2011; Riley et al., 2017).
Physical movement positively affect learners’ ability to engage emotionally, cognitively, behaviourally, and agentic, thus addresses all the aspects of engagement (Marzano & Pickering, 2010). The integration of physical activity in daily mathematics class enhanced enjoyment and
engagement (Riley et al., 2017). Practical application of physical movement incorporation strategy includes:
• Design tasks that use movement for understanding
Design tasks that use movement to deepen learner understanding of content by incorporating
‘corner’ activities. Learners physically move and assemble at different corners to discuss different parts of the content as designed by the teacher (Marzano & Pickering, 2010).
Authenticity realistic
Authenticity affects learning engagement and performance (Taylor et al., 2016). Authenticity refers to the extent to which tasks or activities require learners to solve real-world problems which have value beyond the class and school (Lombardi, 2007; Newmann, Bryk & Nagaoka, 2001).
These authentic activities require using what is learnt in class to accomplish life application problems (Brophy, 2004).
Through authentic tasks and activities, learning science by memorizing facts or following scientific procedures engages learners in scientific discourse that uses science in the way scientists would (Taylor et al., 2016:4-5).
When learners engage in authentic work, the quality of their academic performance increases in middle and elementary schools (Newmann et al., 2001; Newmann & Associates,1996). As a result of these findings, learners should learn through engaging in authentic activities (Brophy, 2004).
Authentic activities include among others:
(i) Exposing learners to realistic simulations
Exposing engaged learners to realistic simulations of real-life applications if it is impossible to engage them in the actual life applications that the learning experiences are designed to prepare them for (Brophy, 2004:39; Taylor et al., 2016).
(ii) Connecting tasks and scenarios to learners’ own lives (real-life application)
Connect tasks and scenarios to learners’ lives and interest. When problems and scenarios are related to learners’ own lives, performance and engagement increase (Walkington, 2013; Meier, 2008).
(iii) Incorporating a variety of information sources
Incorporate a variety of information sources and stimuli such as original text, realistic data figures, tables and charts that represents a scientific concept, investigation, procedure, experiment that does not occur naturally (Taylor et al., 2016).
(iv) Designing context-based inquiry
Design context-based inquiry including problem-solving, formulating hypotheses, investigating the problem using content learnt in class (Marzano & Pickering, 2010).
(v) Administering authentic intellectual tasks
Support your learners to get engage with authentic intellectual tasks that involve the construction of knowledge, disciplined inquiry, and emphasis on real-world connections (Taylor et al., 2016).
Thoughtful technology usage
The rapid development of technology in the 21st century is changing how people learn (Koller et al., 2006:30-36). There is solid evidence that technology can help boost learner engagement (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019).
Learners who could become irritated by technology become less engaged. The absence of interaction between instructor and learner and other learners using technology is a challenge on its own (Koller et al., 2006:30-36). Such challenges could be overcome by adopting the following measures:
(i) Plan the use of technology to provide opportunities for active engagement of learners. For effective use of technology, learners should be provided with opportunities to discover learning, group activities and discussions. Research suggests that simulations can be particularly effective in using technology in transferring knowledge (Koller et al., 2006:30- 36).
(ii) Find and use technology that provides relevant content and links with what learners already know, produce feedback and support the aims of learning objectives and outcomes (Abla &
Fraumeni, 2019:7; Koller et al., 2006).
(iii) Use technological innovation efficiently from a learning objective to a learning outcome. For example, a teacher who uses technology as a tool, a means to an end, can get better results (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019:7-8).
(iv) Apply technological tools that aid visualisation of concepts with a guided sequence of steps to promote clarity and engagement. Technology becomes helpful when the lesson allows learners to visualise concepts (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019).
(v) Use a multimedia approach, e.g., music samples, short film clips from video games, movies or real-life situations. Keep electronic slides to the minimum with fewer slides full of texts and use more graphics (El-Shamy, 2004:21-29). Multimedia and discussion could increase the emotional engagement of learners even though they may not automatically increase their behavioural engagement and cognitive engagement (Nueva & Calica, 2018:115-118).
(vi) Multimedia activities will lead to improved understanding, increased retention, efficient skills and knowledge transfer by purposefully engaging learners through technological media (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019; Taylor et al., 2016; Wu & Puntambekar, 2012; Marzano &
Pickering, 2010).