CHAPTER 3 THE PERIODIC TABLE, ENGAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND
3.5 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ENGAGEMENT
Although the attention on engagement has escalated in the past years, the differentiation between engagement and motivation continues to be the subject of debate (Appleton et al., 2006).
Motivation is a theoretical framework that explains the cause(s) of engagement, degree of investing in a specific behaviour, attention and effort in learning (Barkley, 2020:9; Brophy, 2004:4) 2009:225). The indicator of engagement is the direct observation of learners in the classroom because engagement refers to the visible manifestation of motivation (Skinner et al., 2009:499).
As learners are motivated, they manifest positive engagement traits. Intrinsically, learner engagement indicates various components of engagements within the school or classroom reflecting in learner schoolwork, enthusiasm, positive emotions, and cognitively focused and participation in learning activities (Skinner et al., 2009; Skinner et al., 2009; Connell & Wellborn, 1991).
There are several points to endorse the view that learner engagement is important in the classroom. Firstly, learner engagement increases experiences of deep engagement. Secondly, it reduces the incidence of indifference due to lack of engagement. And thirdly, provide a variety of ways that can be adopted in teaching and learning to enhance engaged learning (Barkley, 2010).
Even though academic achievement has been reported in literature as having a positive association with learner engagement however this is not the case of Pagan’s current study (Pagan, 2018). There are factors that influence learners’ potential to engage in a subject material, activities in school, class activities and learning that correlate between academic achievement and engagement.
There is a variety of factors that affect engagement. For instance, a learner who is emotionally engaged may fail to engage in a specific new activity because it is perceived as not interesting.
Some of the factors include beliefs and values, classroom environment, climate or atmosphere, resources, active participation, repetition, mastery, assessment achievement scores.
Beliefs and values
Beliefs are habits, states of mind in which trust or confidence is placed in a person or something as an acceptance that it exists, it is true, or it is held as an opinion. learners have certain opinions, mindsets, and acceptance of aspects of science, chemistry, mathematics. These emerge in their abilities, own expectations, teachers’ expectations, peers, relations with peers as their learning beliefs.
The beliefs that learners have about their teachers’ impact at the extent of their engagement in class. For instance, from the study results, learners’ belief about their teacher’s perception, interpersonal relationship and self-efficacy affects their engagement (van Uden, et al., 2014).
Again, learners who belief their teachers like them are more engaged and achieve better than their counterparts (van Uden et al., 2014; Goldin et al., 2011). In support of this motion, Brophy (2004:27-28) argues that learners will put up any reasonable effort in their studies if they like and admire their teacher.
Self-efficacy is the individual belief in their own abilities, capacity, capabilities to meet challenges, reach a specific goal and complete a task successfully (Akhtar, 2008; Bandura, 1986, 1997).
Therefore, a learner who thinks that she/he has the capability to influence specific goal or outcome will devote time and effort to achieve it. Furthermore, Green and Miller (1996:187) argue that there is a connection between perceived competence and significant cognitive engagement.
Essentially if a teacher recognises a learner’s ability, his/her self-efficacy beliefs may be improved (Goldin et al., 2011). Self-efficacy beliefs have an impact on learner engagement, therefore, a teacher who feels more effective and confident have a higher chance of getting learners more engaged (van Uden et al., 2014).
It is significant to concentrate on beliefs, values, and goals to discover why learners engage or disengage and how that affects their achievement instead of their performance (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
Classroom environment
Despite the beliefs, values and goals learners may have, Barkley (2010:82) indicated that it is impossible to expect all the learners to be engaged simultaneously and all the time in the
classroom. However, the classroom environment is contagious. For instance, if some of the learners are enthusiastic it positively affects the class. In the same way, a display of disengagement will have a harmful effect on classroom environment (Barkley, 2010).
Creating a classroom condition that promotes engagement lies heavily on the teacher rather than the learners (Barkley,2010). Therefore, to maintain an engaged classroom the teacher must be helpful, approachable, respectful, respect learners, avoid intellectual ignorance (McGlynn, 2001) and avoid authoritarian behaviour (Mainhard, 2009). In addition, a helping, friendly behaviour, and good leadership promote cognitive and emotional engagement in the classroom (Uden et al., 2014).
Additionally, Finn et al., (2003) argued that class size has a more significant effect on class engagement than the performance of the teacher. Numerous studies have indicated that an increase in class size is associated with a decrease of engagement in class. (Blatchford et al., 2011; Bassett et al., 2003; Finn et al., 2003). In larger classes with large class sizes more learners in the low attainment group experience a decline in task behaviour and engagement. Low attainers spend more time off class activities, tasks and exercises in larger classes than in a smaller class size (Blatchford et al., 2011:721-726). On the contrary, according to Bourke (1986) class size did not have any effect on engagement in primary schools.
The impact of class size has gained more incredible support among researchers. However, class size had a negative impact on learner cognitive and behavioural engagement (Kim, 2013; Taft et al., 2011). This implies that learners in larger classes show a decline in behavioural and cognitive engagement (Pilotti et al., 2017:150-151). Additionally, learners’ emotional engagement increases grades while instructors’ cognitive engagement decreases grades (Pilotti et al., 2017:
148-150) in smaller class sizes.
Resources
When class size and classroom atmosphere are favourable learners’ engagement increases.
However, not all increased engagement leads to increased learning.
Other factors such as engagement with learning material (resources) that are essential. Chi and Wylie (2014:224) argued that as learners become more engaged with learning materials (resources), the greater their learning gain. Furthermore, the engaged learner is committed and voluntarily deploys scarce resources (time, attention, and effort, under their control) to support the activity, and the task at hand (Schlechty, 2011).
Clark (2011) suggested that the quality of the learning material system is one of the essential tools for producing content that can be accessed anytime, anywhere and offers access to learning material on cell phones, online, cellular devices, offline and via internet. The emphasis on giving learners what, when they need it most, can be a significant learner engagement approach to enhance engagement.
Active participation
According to Skinner, Furrer et al., (2008) active participation in the early years may function as a protective buffer during challenging times in transitions to middle and high school. However, educators’ efforts to improve behavioural engagement using approaches that engage positive emotions may have long-term effect on learner’s active participation in class activities. This is because learners’ interests and emotions sustain them in participating in a class activity. Likewise, boredom, frustration, or anxiety about schoolwork undermines behavioural participation in academic activities (Skinner et al., 2008:776-779). On the other hand, some learners can pretend to be active and engaged while avoiding genuine participation just to appear active to the teacher and or peers (Goldin et al., 2011:554).
Repetition
Weibell (2011) analysed the work of researchers and summed up the importance of repetition in learning. This includes enhancing learning any skill, the ability to reproduce content from retention, and avoiding what is learnt. Repetition also provides means to knowledge gain. Lastly, it facilitates the transfer of knowledge.
In contrast, Bruner (2004) indicated that too much repetition creates boredom, learner passivity, and rote learning. Therefore, teachers need to find a way to achieve a sensible balance, neither too much nor too little repetition. To achieve such a balance, the focus in the classroom should be on learning, the learner, ideas rather than teaching, the teacher, or the material (Bruner, 2004).
Repetition is a crucial tactic for enhancing learning (Weibell, 2011; Bruner, 2004). Vocabularies, addresses, and poems of any extent cannot be learnt by a single attempt even with exceptional ability. Therefore, it is necessary that a sufficient number of repetitions must be done to ensure final mastery (Weibell, 2011) which supports self-paced discovery, reflection, consistency, and clarity of thoughts. Thus, deep learning is promoted (Bruner, 2004).
Mastery of content
Mastery orientation has the aim of learning and mastering the content according to self- determination and individual standard values (Hsieh et al., 2011). When a learner is focused on
acquiring new skills and additional knowledge, Havik and Westergård (2019:12) indicates that teacher and learners are mastery-oriented. They then create a mastery-oriented classroom.
Learners in these mastery-oriented classrooms have higher energy levels, lower degree of anxiety, increased interest in class, increased motivation due to achievement and high achievement goals (Harackiewicz et al., 2002). Therefore, become proficient to master of content.
There is a strong correlation between mastery orientation and teachers’ emotional support. The higher the level of teacher emotional support, the higher the levels of mastery orientation (Havik
& Westergård, 2019).
Assessment achievement scores
Assessment scores are useful ways to measure whether or not learners are learning. High performance on activities, tasks, tests, exams are usually evidence that new knowledge and skills have been gained. Nevertheless, research has found that learner engagement is a strong indicator to predict a person’s learning performance (Taylor et al., 2016).
The results of a study by Nystrand and Gamoran (1991) on measuring learners’ in-depth understanding revealed that substantive engagement (cognitive engagement) was related positively to achievement test scores.
It is important to note that the interest learners show, and their mastery demonstrated in their field of study depend mainly on how they were taught (Ojogan & Oganwu, 2006, Schunk, 2005).
Today, keeping learners engaged and motivated is a necessity for learning (Saeed & Zyngier, 2012: 261-262).