CHAPTER 2 LEARNING AND LEARNING THEORIES
2.3 LEARNING THEORIES
Learning theories are sets of organised principles and frameworks describing and explaining how individuals acquire, absorb, process, retain and recall knowledge during learning. In addition, understanding and acquisition of a world view or change is influenced by cognitive, emotional, environmental and behavioural factors. Learning theories related to behaviourism, cognitivism, humanism, connectivism and constructivism are briefly discussed in sections 2.3.1 to 2.3.5.
Behaviourism
Behaviourism was among the first learning theories to be compiled. It was mainly connected with the work of Thorndike (1913), Watson (1913) and Ivan Pavlov (1927). The behaviourist view involves external factors such as rewards, punishment, positive and negative reinforcement.
These are practical means of modifying learning and behaviour (Skinner,1985; Scott et al., 2021) Behaviourism operates on a principle of “stimulus-response”. Skinner’s experimental study in the 1930s on reflexes led to the notion that a response to stimulus takes place within an organism (Watrin & Darwich, 2012). For instance, when a learner is shown the equation ‘‘C + O2’’ and the answer given is CO2, then the equation is the stimuli, and the correct answer is the associated response. This view of learning is promoted by repetition and positive reinforcement. Learning is therefore considered as a transformation in the behaviour of the learner.
Watson (1913, 1924), one of the pioneers and advocates of behaviourism, believed that the
‘‘environment” plays a more significant role in learning than genetics. In support of Watson’s view, Rakos (2013) emphasises that any child can learn anything and can become anything you want them to be by creating the environment for learning that will lead to achieving that goal.
The factors that influence learning are thus perceived to be the arrangement of stimuli, reinforcement and the environment. Although both learner behaviour and environmental factors are considered, the environment, according to the behaviourist, is the most important and should receive the most significant emphasis (Ertmer & Newby, 2013).
As noted, learning occurs when there is a behaviour change, thus new behaviour which is observable and measurable is acquired. Neither thinking, mental processes and reasoning activities nor the role of memory is emphasised as part of the learning process by behaviourists (Ertmer & Newby, 2013).
However, Fauziati (2016) and Budiman (2017) have applied the behavioural learning theory in language teaching. Creating a conducive environment with repetitions, mastering basic concepts before progressing to more complex ones, and reinforcement as presented by behaviourism were found vital to learning. Positive reinforcement in rewards or informative feedback presented to learners could guide them to respond favourably to a stimulus.
Although Budiman (2017) found that behaviourism is useful in teaching and learning activities, this theory lacks attention to memory and thinking, which other educationalists consider as vital to learning. The study of cognition led to the development of alternative learning theories, including humanism, cognitivism, constructivism and connectivism.
Humanism
The humanism theory rejects the behaviourist perspective of reinforcing the stimulus-response behaviour, which is based on animal research and the theory regards this as dehumanising.
Humanism, also referred to as the humanistic learning theory or humanistic psychology, emerged as a response to the limitations in Skinner’s behaviourism theory as identified by Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory (McLeod, 2020; Kamran & Kayvan, 2010; Hollis, 1991).
Abraham Maslow, a humanist, created what he believed to be a psychological hierarchy of needs.
At the bottom of the hierarchy are physiological needs like safety, love and belonging, and at the top of the hierarchy are self-esteem and self-actualisation. Fulfilment of the need at the very top of the pyramid symbolises meaning (Weiner, 1980). Humanism asserts that learning requires the teacher to provide an environment for the learner to experiment and develop hence experiential
learning governs humanism (Wu et al., 2012:1154-1160; Hollis, 1991). However, for the learner to grow, there is also the need for an environment that provides them with acceptance and being listened to and understood. This means that the learner must be allowed to talk and to be listened to in the classroom.
Yang et al. (2018) argue that the humanistic learning theory focus on learners’ experience and internal feelings to understand their psychological behaviour, dignity, ideals and interests.
Teachers should pay special attention to the learners’ perceptions, emotions, beliefs and intentions (Yang et.al., 2018).
To summarise, it can be contended that humanism is the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of the individual. Providing an ideal environment for learner centeredness and reaching out to every learner is proposed. Therefore, individual learning is promoted by role modelling, experiences, exploring and observing others. This implies that learning from the humanist point of view can be described as a natural and a personal process to fulfil one’s potential and self-actualisation. It is a holistic approach.
Cognitivism
Cognitivism view learning as the development of cognitive pathways for understanding physical responses to experiences. Jean Piaget (1977) developed the cognitive learning theory, called the theory of thought.
Cognitivism is characterised by thought, understanding the structure of knowledge and the internal environment instead of the behaviourist external environment (Torre et al., 2006). It stresses cognitive processes rather than external observable behaviour. According to the cognitivist, learning takes place in the learners’ internal environment and cognitive structures using cognitive tools such as insight, information processing, perceptions and memory to facilitate learning by assigning meaning to events (Torre et al., 2006).
Cognitive development, however, takes place through social settings and interactions. Knowledge and skills are acquired through interaction with others who already have the skills and knowledge (Hakvoort, 2002). In other words, to obtain knowledge, the individual depends on the persons in possession of the knowledge such as teachers, peers or parents, for guidance and support (Anastasiou et al., 2015). Learning does not depend solely on the level of cognitive development of a child but upon the representation and strategies used to process information (Anastasiou et al., 2015; Berg, 1999).
Stanković et al. (2018) content that the conditions to develop learners’ cognitive abilities; include active participation in the learning process, interacting with adult teachers, information with clear instruction, and teaching materials with clear and quick identification of goals.
A general idea about the application of cognitive theory in the classroom, is the active participation and learner cognition in the classroom and interaction with the teacher. This relates to the findings of Stanković et al. (2018) by comparing cognitive learning theories to multimedia teaching and learning. They assert that the application of multimedia in the teaching process increases students’ active participation, facilitating interactive learning and improving success.
Connectivism
Connectivism is a theory of learning in the digital age based on the concept that information is processed by forming connections. Since technology is growing very fast, a severe consideration for a new paradigm of teaching and learning to match up with the fast-moving technological environment and complexity of information available on the internet was considered essential (Downes, 2008; Siemens, 2005; Brown & Adler, 2008).
The connectivism theory affirms that knowledge forms connections between networks by actions and experiences (Kop & Hill 2008). Learning is the ‘’ability to construct and traverse these networks” (Downes, 2008). Siemens (2006) suggests that ‘’learning is the network’’ which, according to Kop and Hill (2008), is a relationship between the external and the internal physical environment.
Downes (2008, 2019), Kop and Hill (2008) assert that connectivism theory can guide teaching and learning as the digital age progresses. The learner connects to a learning community by receiving and giving information (Kop & Hill 2008), in an area of similar interest that allows for interaction, sharing and thinking together through networking (Siemens, 2004).
The internet and technology have altered essence of learning from teacher-centred to learner- centred (Foroughi, 2015). Connectivism, a proposed learning theory for the digital age, views learning as continuously creating, updating connections with other networks and different knowledge sources (Foroughi, 2015). Importantly, Kop and Hill (2008) emphasised that cognition and emotions are important to the learning process as perceived by connectivism. Finally, Simens (2013) argues that connectivism offers awareness to learning skills and activities that are necessary for learners to succeed in the modern digital age because learning and knowledge include interacting with different media and not just an individual activity.
Utecht and Keller (2019) argue that we are in the new digital era where the internet creates easy access to information and knowledge. Factors such as how quickly one can learn, unlearn and relearn information in today’s digital world are of optimum importance in acquiring knowledge.
Connectivism embraces the change to a “just-in-time” learning environment (Utecht & Keller, 2019). The ability to enjoy immediate production and arrival of information and knowledge in a learning environment represents immense engagement potential for educators and their learners (Utecht & Keller, 2019:11). This implies that a learning environment with easy access will produce immediate and continuous information with ease due to the present availability of the internet.
This interaction enhances learning engagement.
Verhagen (2006) criticises connectivism because connectivism does not display any new principles that do not already exist in other present learning theories. Furthermore, Verhagen is unconvinced that learning can fit in non-human appliances. Hence the constructivist approach is more acceptable, as it views learning as the building of knowledge and experiences created by the learner (Djan, 2014; Driver et al., 1986; Barkley et al., 2005).
Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning philosophy (Jia, 2010) where learners construct their own knowledge by giving meaning to new knowledge (Barkley et al., 2005:28). They create their understanding based on their experiences and link further information to their experiences to construct their own meaning. Therefore, exposure to activities that promote existing and new experiences is used to construct knowledge.