7. Mega-projects and sustainability in the city
7.2. Sustainable city principles in mega-project development
7.2.6. Ensure stewardship: long term regeneration vision
According to Maharaj (11/07/2011), all of the projects involve the reinforcement of inequalities rather than addressing them, and as discussed in section 7.2.4, scarce public resources have been diverted to these projects rather than addressing basic needs (Scott, 22/04/2010; Maharaj, 11/07/2011). This is once again indicative of a neo-liberal agenda within cities; where there is a focus on entrepreneurialism, which diverts money from other uses; and pro-growth policies are implemented which do not benefit all citizens equally, resulting in increased social and economic polarisation (Sykora, 1994; Loftman and Nevin, 1996; Hutton, 200423). The city’s neo-liberal, pro-growth agenda has therefore resulted in intergenerational and intragenerational equity being side-lined within urban regeneration strategies, and the achievement of a sustainable city has thus been compromised.
city; injecting revenue into the economy; and creating a re-energised and safer city precinct were also important elements (Iyer Rothaug Collaborative, 2003, cited in Gounden, 2010; Nel and John, 2006; Scott et al, 200625).
Further elements of the stadium’s long term vision included that it was considered as a catalyst for the development of the surrounding sports precinct; and it was developed with the notion that it could be reconfigured and the surrounding precinct incorporated as a means of hosting the Olympic Games. This precinct provides the opportunity for the city to market itself as a ‘sports city’, and the stadium may be linked with other features, such as the Point Development, to establish an entertainment district (Smith, 2010), thereby incorporating an integrated approach to tourism development. It was further suggested that the stadium would accommodate and incorporate a variety of other sporting activities, such as rugby, cricket and athletics, as according to Julie May Ellingson, the city “can’t afford to build a stadium for only one sports code” (Albert, 2009; Maennig and du Plessis, 2009; Savides, 2009a26).
It has however since been decided that the city will not bid for the Olympics, resulting in questions surfacing around how public funds have been gambled with in the construction of the stadium (Maharaj, 11/07/2011). Issues have also emerged concerning the incorporation of rugby and cricket into the stadium, as the relevant constituencies were not consulted, and therefore their requirements were not taken into consideration. This has resulted in these sports codes being unable to use the stadium due to incorrect configurations; and it not being economically viable for the local rugby franchise, the Sharks, to move there (Savides, 2010e). This has affected the long term vision, and consequently the sustainability, of the stadium (Moolla, 25/08/2010; Scott, 22/04/2010; Sim, 30/04/201027). Furthermore, the pre-existing Mr Price Kings Park Rugby Stadium, located next to the new stadium, was rated as meeting ninety three percent of FIFA’s requirements for the World Cup, and was deemed the most appropriate stadium for redevelopment (Robbins, 22/04/2010; Maharaj, 11/07/2011). The construction of a new stadium
25Pillay and Bass, 2008; DAEA, 2009; Give uShaka, 2009; Jasson da Costa, 2009; Johnson, 2009; Kisten, 2009;
Kockott, 2009a; Maennig and du Plessis, 2009; Maluleka, 2009; Mbonambi, 2009a; Mbonambi, 2009b;
Mbonambi, 2009c; Naidoo, 2009a; Savides, 2009c; Zikalala, 2009; Dorasamy, 2010; Foster, 05/05/2010;
Goldstone, 2010; Gounden, 2010; Khumalo, 2010; Mbanjwa, 2010; Moolla, 25/08/2010; Saib, 2010a; Saib, 2010d; Savides, 2010c; Savides, 2010d; Scott, 22/04/2010; Sim, 30/04/2010; Iyer, 03/08/2011; Naidoo, 2011;
Brink, n.d.; www.durban.gov.za; www.sa2010.gov.za; www.southafrica.info.; www.sacities.net;
www.thepropertymag.co.za (b).
26 Tanner, 2009; Tomlinson, 2009; Venter, 2009; Zikalala, 2009; Foster, 05/05/2010; Goldstone, 2010; Savides, 2010f; Sole, 2010; Iyer, 03/08/2011; Maharaj, 11/07/2011; www.durban.gov.za; www.sa2010.gov.za.
27 Maharaj, 11/07/2011.
was therefore not required. Plate 7.8 illustrates the proximity of these two stadiums to each other28.
Plate 7.8: The new Moses Mabhida Stadium and the Mr Price Kings Park Stadium (Coppola, 2010).
The proposal for the Warwick Mall formed part of the city’s plans to revamp, reorganise and reconfigure the Warwick transport hub to become a multi-modal transport precinct with better safety, efficiency, and access; as well as encouraging sustainability of the existing economic activity, providing opportunities for informal and formal trade (www.durban.gov.za). It has however been pointed out that the current Warwick market presents an opportunity for tourism and other local economic development, and such markets are important tourist attractions in many cities in the South. The EMM also plays a role in local food production and distribution, as well as providing local employment, thereby contributing to a more sustainable city (KwaZulu-Natal Provincial Government, 2009; Maharaj, 11/07/2011; www.streetnet.org.za). The destruction of the EMM for the construction of a mall, and the consequent effects on the rest of the market may therefore have negatively impacted on the long term sustainability of Durban, rather than enhancing it. This reflects the criticism of mega-project development whereby alternatives are not considered, and the only option may not be the most appropriate (Priemus, 2010a; Priemus, 2010b). Caution is therefore an important element of this principle which would play a role in the proposed development of the mall.
The previous city manager, Mike Sutcliffe, stated in his newsletter that the decision to develop and sell off the land in the Point area was a “deliberate strategy aimed at regenerating the inner city, growing our tourism base and ensuring we create jobs in both the tourism and retail sectors”
(www.durban.gov.za). The Point Development incorporates three phases in its plan, the first of which was the construction of uShaka, which according to Mike Sutcliffe, has become an icon for Durban and the province; and the final of which includes the R100 million SCH and further
28 The Mr Price Kings Park Stadium (previously the ABSA Stadium) is located in the bottom right of the picture. This highlights the close proximity of the two stadiums.
mixed use development opportunities (Robbins, 2004a; Mbonambi, 2009a; Maharaj, 11/07/201129). Plate 7.9 shows the entrance to uShaka, and Plate 7.10 provides an image of the interior of uShaka.
Plate 7.9: The entrance to uShaka Plate 7.10: Part of uShaka Marine World
Marine World (www.internetaccommodation.co.za).
Although the Point has had some success in terms of renewal (Gounden, 2010), it has not taken off in terms of rejuvenating the area, and the original idea of it as a catalyst for the redevelopment and repositioning of Durban as a city, and helping it gather momentum to regenerate its tourism offerings, have been lost over time. The area has therefore failed to be developed in an integrated and coherent manner, and a major part of the site, the SCH, has not yet been developed (Easton, 2010; Robbins, 22/04/2010; Maharaj, 11/07/2011). This reflects a criticism of mega-projects concerning the projects being poorly integrated into the wider urban process and planning system (Swyngedouw et al, 2002; Cornelissen, 2008). One of the reasons for this fragmented progress concerns the development of the King Shaka International Airport, as this resulted in a shift of investment and development to the north, diverting attention away from inner city development.
The appeal process and legal action associated with the contested nature of the development, the global economic recession and the focus on the World Cup which detracted from the Point have also impacted on this.
All of these projects thus reflect the city’s attempt to reposition itself within the competitive landscape for locals, tourists and investors; through the use of mega-projects which are a fundamental element of contemporary city-building strategies, as they are able to satisfy immediate goals, redefine neighbourhoods and cities, stimulate other urban processes and have a significant impact on development (Loftman and Nevin, 1996; Lungo, 2002; Swyngedouw et al, 200230).
29 www.durban.gov.za; www.durbanpoint.co.za (b); www.laurusco.com.
30 McCarthy, 2003; Ehrenfeucht, 2004; Pelkonen, 2005; Waley, 2007; Roberts et al, 2009; Bornstein, 2010.
Each of the projects have incorporated a long term vision in their planning, indicating that urban regeneration within the city has considered the need for such a vision. However, in the case of the Warwick Mall, a long term vision incorporating the current market may have been a more appropriate strategy; and the stadium and the Point have both encountered problems in terms of achieving these visions. Furthermore, all of the projects reflect a focus on a long term economic vision and success, rather than greater social and ecological sustainability. This suggests that although long term visions are developed within the city’s planning, there is a lack of coherence and an uneven focus, and it is thus uncertain whether they can contribute to creating a sustainable city.