MAPPING THE RESEARCH JOURNEY - MY RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.2 Research design
4.2.5 Ethical considerations
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Rwandan indirectly affected by the Genocide. Finally, the research sample included a returnee from exile despite it not being planned for. This category consists of teachers who returned from exile, including people who came to Rwanda after the Genocide. In other words they were either born in exile or grew up outside of Rwanda. In general, my choice of participants was guided by qualitative studies’
philosophy which emphasises diversity while recruiting research participants (King &
Horrocks, 2010).
As earlier stated, sampling not only “focuses on the selection of people to be interviewed for example, or situations to be observed, but also the selection of sites in which such persons or situations can be expected to be found” (Flick, 2007, p.27).
In the case of this study the history of Rwanda, which includes topics on Genocide, is taught countrywide. Consequently, the chosen sites were not only from Kigali City but also from other provinces. Kigali City was chosen due to it being convenient (Patton, 2002). Since I reside in Kigali City, the capital, it was easy to access schools because the city hosts many schools serving its substantial population. This was the reason why most of the participants who were chosen for this study were from Kigali City. But, the idea of proximity and easy access was not the first motivation for the choice of the participants, other research participants were found outside of Kigali City. Participants also came from regions deeply affected by the Genocide against the Tutsi such as the Southern Province and regions which had fewer victims such as the Northern Province. Some teachers came from schools that were better resourced than others. It must also be pointed out that there is no clear link between poorly resourced schools and rurality. In rural areas there are also schools that are well-resourced because their owners are wealthy. For instance, religious communities own most of the well-resourced schools in rural areas. Therefore, the idea of variation pushed me to think about different sites. Consequently, sampling decisions were mostly taken on a concrete level rather than on an abstract one (Flick, 2009). During the research process, the selected participants were protected against harm by respecting ethical requirements as will be explained below.
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Christensen 2008; Cohen et al., 2011; Flick, 2009; Patton, 2002; Sarantakos, 2005;
Strydom, 2011). This is crucial because in the act of gathering data, the qualitative researcher engages in a close relationship with the research participants on numerous occasions and on numerous levels. This closeness requires research ethics to protect the research participants’ welfare so that they do not experience physical or mental harm or legal complications. In this subsection I engage with the conceptual issues related to research ethics and also explain how the participants in this research study were protected against harm. I will also explain how I obtained ethical clearance for this research study.
With reference to physical harm, “researchers are expected to exclude from their research (a) instruments or procedures that could injure the respondents; (b) subjects who are susceptible to research treatment (e.g. suffering from heart disease or mental disorders); and (c) treatment that may motivate subjects to harm themselves during or after the study” (Sarantakos, 2005, p.19). According to Strydom (2011), it is difficult to predict the emotional harm of research participants. It is however, advised to avoid research procedures that could cause discomfort, stress, anxiety and loss of self-esteem by engaging with personal issues related to the research participants or their significant others. Legal harm on the other hand can come about when the research participants’ right to privacy, anonymity and confidentiality are not respected. This can have serious personal, emotional, social and economic consequences (Sarantakos, 2005). To avoid physical, mental and emotional as well as legal harm accepted ethical principles namely non- malfeasance, autonomy and respect of dignity, as well as beneficence and justice, need to be followed at each stage of a research project. This is the gateway to ethically sound research (Cohen et al., 2011; Flick, 2006).
In order to ensure that my research was ethically sound, it was necessary as a first step, by means of a literature review, to determine to what extent my topic was already researched which was done to avoid duplication. The research questions were also prepared meticulously so as to avoid the “participants from being ‘over- researched’” (Flick, 2007, p.71). The latter was achieved by means of a pilot study of my research instruments conducted at the former Kigali Institute of Education (Rwanda). This assisted me in refining my research instruments including the order
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in which interview questions would be posed. Reviewing the interview questions was done so as to prevent harm to the research participants which might emanate from sensitive questions that did not take into consideration their psychological preparation for the research process.
Given the fact that the context of this research study was located in Rwanda, I not only had to follow the University of KwaZulu-Natal’s ethical clearance policy but also the rules and regulations that guide research in Rwanda. The University of KwaZulu- Natal Research and Ethics Policy applies to all members of staff and students
involved in research on or outside the University
(http://research.ukzn.ac.za/research-ethics/overview.aspx). Staff members and students must sign an undertaking to comply with the University’s Code of Conduct for Research. The guiding principles of the Policy include fairness and equity for the participants. In addition, the researcher undertakes to use safe and responsible research methods and to protect the research participants at all times. The University of KwaZulu-Natal ethical clearance (see Appendix A, Ethical clearance approval letter no HSS/1103/013D) was subjected, to a serious delay, for no apparent reason, as I only received the final approval on November 15, 2013, six months after the defence of the research project.
In Rwanda, an ethical application had to be lodged at least three months prior to the proposed date of the assumption of the research. In addition, all researchers conducting research in Rwanda are required to be affiliated to a relevant body in the country prior to the submission of the research application to the Directorate General of Science, Technology and Research in the Ministry of Education for clearance. If the mentioned conditions, plus the submission of amongst others, a curriculum vitae and a research proposal are fulfilled, the ethical clearance is granted for up to one year renewable for a further two years. In acquiring ethical clearance for research purposes in Rwanda, I did not struggle much. As an employee of a higher learning institution, the former Kigali Institute of Education, and having a curriculum vitae and research proposal ready, the permission for undertaking the research was granted within one day. However, at the Ministry of Education it took almost two weeks to secure the final document of approval with reference no 1793/12.00/2013 of 29/07/2013 (See Appendix B).
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Once in the field, the participants were informed verbally about the nature of my research. I made my intention of undertaking research on the teaching of the Genocide and its related controversial issues in history in Rwandan secondary schools known to the participants. The participants were informed that their participation was on a voluntary basis. They were also ensured about the confidentiality of the research. The participants also learnt that they could withdraw from the research at any time without providing a reason. They were also given my phone numbers and email addresses for any query, including should they want to withdraw from the research. The same information was provided to the research participants by means of a written document in three official languages used in Rwanda (Kinyarwanda, French and English) specifying what I expected from them and vice versa (See Appendix C). Thus, they had to be aware of what the research entailed before they commit themselves to it (Flick, 2007). Ultimately, before the research could start the participants were obliged to sign a consent form. In the consent form, the participants agreed to the recording and to the use of their data including drawings in this research and its related activities. But, as Cohen et al.
(2011, p.78) observe it is often impossible for researchers to inform participants of every aspect of research and its ethical implications. A point in case is how the data will be analysed.
Even though the participants accepted to be part of my research on a voluntary basis, studies which are sensitive pose a substantial threat to those who are involved in it (Kitson, Clark, Rushforth, Brinich, Sudak & Zysanski, 1996). As Genocide is a sensitive and controversial topic, I was aware that some participants may become distressed during the process. Specifically since some content covered during the research process may be related, for example, to violence, topics which are taboo, physical appearance or intrusion in their private lives (Cohen et al., 2011). In my study, this was specifically the case since the Genocide was characterised by a range of inhumane actions as discussed in chapters 1 and 2 (Des Forges, 1999).
Some of the research participants could have been affected in different ways - they could have lost members of their family during the Genocide or had family members jailed as perpetrators. Additionally, some women were also raped during the Genocide. I consequently anticipated an encounter with participants who had faced
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such atrocities. Moreover, the literature review revealed that some people might deny the Genocide in its totality. Consequently, in light of the afore-mentioned, some participants may not have been willing to reveal publicly what they think about some challenges faced while teaching the event. Owing to some of these challenges, I wondered if to continue with my research would not be a violation of research ethics.
Based on a utilitarianism approach to research (Johnson & Christensen, 2008), I considered the interest of conducting research on a topic which affected the lives of all Rwandans as important. This was especially so in terms of gaining knowledge and understanding on the teaching of the Genocide, which could inform decision makers, and other researchers on how to deal with Genocide related controversial issues. Bearing this in mind, I took the decision to proceed with the research.
However, the participants’ consent on how to use the data they had provided, including their drawings, was requested and in so doing, anonymity was promised and respected by using pseudonyms and altering the respective geographical settings. As Johnson and Christensen (2008) note the participants’ anonymity and confidentiality, and that of their data, must be protected in such a manner that they are entirely untraceable. Therefore, all participants’ names were changed as agreed in the consent form during the process of analysis in this study. The names of schools and their locations were also changed and in most cases the gender of the participants were also altered. Taking such steps is not contradictory to narrative inquiry which allows such steps (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990; Atkinson, 2007). By signing the consent form, I anticipated that the research participants might become more guarded in what they would disclose to me. But, as a former teacher in secondary schools in Rwanda, I talked about my own teaching experiences to encourage them. They were also aware that I participated in the 2008 history programme as an advisor and therefore was not a complete outsider. This provided them with comfort and confidence.
Regarding the participants’ emotions in the course of the research process, I anticipated reactions of anger or tears (Kitson et al., 1996). One strategy advocated for is not to immediately stop the research process without consulting the participant because this could send the message that as the researcher I could not cope with her/his feelings. The interview could, however, be brought to an end depending on
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the situation of things with the participants. As an alternative, I also planned to talk gently to the research participants by proposing to move onto a different aspect or to take a break (King & Horrocks, 2010). I also had to envisage telling the participants that the topic in question could cause emotional trauma (Kitson, et. al., 1996). But the participants had to be encouraged to continue with the research process as it could bring about deep understanding and pave a way for further research. In addition, teachers could also learn from the research and adjust their teaching strategies. Some tissues were bought in case of need. I was also in contact with a clinical psychologist beforehand who agreed to give me advice in case of emotional trauma during the research process. Surprisingly, the participants showed no serious emotion and the fieldwork was concluded without mishap.
To protect participants from harm they were informed that they were free to withdraw from the research at any time. One participant who had agreed to participate withdrew two days earlier without giving reasons. I subsequently sent him a message to apologize if the study inconvenienced him.
The participants were also free to refuse to be recorded or not during the interview sessions. Only one research participant requested not to be recorded during the interview. But later, when he authorized me to record, he revealed almost the same information as he had done before. However, he spoke in a low voice and after the interview he revealed that it was due to the topic which he regarded as very serious and had had to first ensure if what he was saying was in line with the research area of interest. Photographs were also used during the research process. This allowed participants to explore and engage with the Genocide as a sensitive topic. This helped teachers to talk about pedagogies, content and more difficult issues. In this regard, in view of visual ethics, no changes of photographs was done (Holm, 2008). I am convinced that you cannot engage with topics around the Genocide without causing any harm to the research participants due to the atrocities related to the Genocide.
To alleviate the possibility of any possible harm I did not only select photographs that stereotype or that could humiliate or traumatise. I tried to diversify photographs taken from the public domain (see Appendix D). This was to avoid what Mitchell called
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“who isn’t in the pictures” (2011, p.28) talking about some people or aspects who/which are over-studied and under-studied due to a range of reasons. In addition to the measures outlined above, I decided to transcribe and analyse all the research data myself so that nobody could identify the participants.
As a Rwandan, I had to control my own emotion and respect the ethical issues surrounding research of this nature, even with myself. Arguably emotions could get the better of a researcher during the data gathering process or during the writing up (Elksnin & Elksnin, 2003; Kitson et al., 1996). Before choosing the research methods, I thought deeply about my topic (McCully, 2012). At a certain point, I was hesitant in adopting certain methods fearing that I would fail to secure rich thick data or that I would be interrupted in the field. Furthermore, for ethical reasons certain topics related to this research were considered as taboo. For instance, one expatriate who was also a researcher, Elisabeth Levy Paluck, “was strictly prohibited by authorities in post-conflict Rwanda from asking specifics about ethnic group interactions among the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa” (King, 2009, p.9). Another researcher noted that her research not only took place within a context of government interference but also discreet government surveillance (Thomson, 2009). In contrast, I was encouraged by previous activities carried out through the Education for Community Cohesion Project where some students from the former Kigali Institute of Education interacted via Moodle with their peers of the University of Nottingham to respond to questions related to the teaching of Genocide and the Holocaust.
Paluck (as quoted by King, 2009) continued her research but used alternative words while interacting with Rwandans about social groups. This blend of care and creativity encouraged me to think ahead about supplementary means in case the participants were afraid to talk about social groups. I decided to use the people who were most affected by the Genocide or the targeted group for Tutsi and the most aligned to the regime for the Hutu. For the Twa, I had planned to talk about the group least concerned by the Genocide. But, the research participants were free to use the Rwandan social groups whenever necessary or adopt another term as the targeted group. Consequently, during the write up, I sometimes had to stop and consider terms such as Tutsi, Hutu or Twa to check their fitness for purpose. Hours passed during the night before sleeping while I considered the possibility of including or
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removing some part of the research. Sometimes, I was obliged to talk to Rwandan colleagues to share some related ethical matter or thoughts before proceeding with the writing. In summary my instinct and lived experiences helped me in making judgements regarding certain challenges and ways of proposing possible solution (McLaghlin, 2003).
My reflections and engagements showed me that ethical research on sensitive topics was possible when employing appropriate research methods. Consequently, the research methodology was designed to help me to present participating teachers through their own voice. Therefore, the use of career life stories was preferred in this research. In addition, it is quite evident that research aimed at how to better understand a phenomenon could help policy makers and other stakeholders in education to work towards a better Rwanda are worth pursuing even when faced by ethical challenges. It is necessary to note that the technical team in the Rwandan Ministry of Education in charge of issuing ethical clearance should provide appropriate guidelines when ethical problems should arise. The more practical aspects of this research are discussed through the next sections including the research methodology which explains how data were gathered and analysed.