JOURNEY COMPANIONS: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL IDEAS
3.4 Relevance of teaching controversial issues
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In the case of Rwanda, the United Nations conceptualisation prevailed as it was used to incriminate perpetrators who committed the Genocide (Jørgensen, 2001). It is also necessary to emphasize the fact that even if the Hutu and Tutsi are not considered two distinctly different ethnic groups as they share the same culture, they were taken as separate ethnic groups since the colonial period, and it was recorded as such in identity cards. Different policies during the post-colonial period (1962- 1994) continued to view them as two different groups and the killings followed these identity impositions. As there is no one accepted conceptualisation of controversial issues and genocide, it is important to understand how these issues are taught in school settings.
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(Philips, 2008). Learners should have some information about such controversial issues to keep updated. Thus, controversial issues are taught in classrooms because they are topical and relevant to learners’ daily lives (Holden, 2002; Philips, 2008; Stradling, 1984).
The teaching of controversial issues could increase learners’ knowledge. By learning, about issues such as gender, Islamophobia and terrorism, learners can develop an understanding of the reasons for topics being controversial and their historical context. Moreover, through the examination of specific issues learners come to understand a range of theories, concepts and generalisations. Thus, another importance of teaching controversial issues is to help learners understand the context in which they live and the issues related to it. Similarly, the teaching of controversial issues can also equip learners with skills to make sound judgements.
As Hess (2009) posits it can help learners to discuss and envision political possibilities. Different political views are aired and critically evaluated. In addition, discussion helps learners to enhance diversity and tolerance. In the same line, the teaching of controversial issues can help learners face indoctrination or hate media outside the classroom as explained by Burron (2006) with reference to the American context:
Controversial issues are not only desirable content for the curriculum, they are imperative. In the Information Age, no American [or anyone else] can escape constant exposure to propaganda. Some of it will be the most hate-generating vitriol imaginable. Extremist groups abound. Their poison is promulgated on the Internet and a host of other outlets. Sound-bite cacophony on the airwaves has in many instances, replaced rational discourse in the public forum (Burron, 2006, p. 3).
Therefore, teaching controversial issues could equip learners with skills which enable them to deal with such issues. This can be done by means of a ‘‘socio- cognitive’’ debate facilitated by the teacher who can provide learners with principles to discuss with others. The debate could serve to encourage learners to build their own personal conceptualization on controversial issues (Cavet, 2007). In the process, learners can gain some knowledge by being exposed to ideas different from theirs. They can also obtain some transferable skills such as collecting and evaluating evidence, analysing statistics, presenting findings and explaining theories which they can use outside the school environment when facing controversial issues
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(Manyane, 1995; Stradling, 1984, Wassermann et al., 2008). However, it is the educators’ role to aid in the development of these abilities in their respective classrooms where balanced conclusions can be adopted (Holden, 2002; McCully, 2006). Coupled with a participatory approach, learning about controversial issues increases not only the development of communication skills but also learners’
socialisation through group work and discussion where learners negotiate roles or ask for help (The Historical Association, 2007).
More specifically, the teaching of controversial issues is also, by dint of the nature of the subject, also important in teaching history. There are different motives for teaching controversial issues in history such as the essence of history itself, the development of critical skills, the application of critical skills to historical evidence, the development of multi-perspectivity and its implication for a democratic society.
Secondly, some strategies of tackling controversial issues in history are reviewed.
Even if it is not easy to discuss controversial issues it is in many ways the essence of history. The reality is that the past cannot be changed. However, it is difficult to describe it accurately and it can be viewed differently (Chapman, 2011). People do not always have the same view on an event. On the one hand, sometimes accounts are manipulated to convince people about some beliefs or implant in the readers’
minds certain attitudes. On the other hand, people view the past according to the time and context in which the events happened. For instance, homosexuality practised during medieval times has been seen in the previous century as immoral.
But, nowadays some argue that the acceptance of homosexuality means the existence of a tolerant society (Crabtree, 2001). The learner can, with the aid of the history teacher, understand the reason behind the two different interpretations. The development of multi-perspectivity is therefore at the heart of teaching controversial issues in history. Those who study history can progressively be aware of the diversity of perspectives (Burron, 2006; McCully, 2012; Manyane, 1995). The presence of controversy in history promotes greater understanding of another’s perspective ; its absence blunts such understanding (Johnson & Johnson, 1979).
Given the existence of controversy in history, the use of historical evidence to deal with controversy in this subject has been supported by different scholars (Kitson &
McCully, 2005; Leib, 1998; Manyane, 1995; Noctor, 1984). Historical evidence is
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required to support someone’s point of view and therefore can put an end to a controversy or can give rise to new disagreements (Manyane, 1995). Therefore, controversy is sometimes linked to the progress of historical knowledge or research (Cavet, 2007).
Secondly, while engaging with controversial issues in teaching history the use of evidence is closely linked to the development of learners’ critical thinking. Critical thinking procedures such as “assessing authenticity, accuracy and worth of knowledge claims and arguments” (Savich, 2008, p.12) has to be applied to any controversial issue (Burron, 2006). Specifically, learners need to know how to apply critical questions to any historical source be it a picture, an oral source or a written document to discover what others say about the same source. Stradling (2001) gives a series of analytical questions to be asked about public statements, newspaper articles, film and broadcasting commentaries by politicians and any other persons interpreting the issue. In order to critically analyse the evidence, some key issues have to be taken into consideration:
… appreciating the complexity of the issue; sorting out the arguments of the various groups and individuals involved (or the different historians: distinguishing between relevant and background information; identifying different potential sources of information; recognising the gaps in the information that is presented;
recognising the limitations of this information; evaluating the likely biases of the people supplying the information; sorting out the similarities and differences in various accounts of the issue; handling conflicting evidence or accounts of what has happened” (Stradling, 2001, pp.100-101).
Therefore, critical thinking is important while deliberating on the usefulness, trustworthiness and reliability of historical sources as it relates to controversial issues.
A review of the literature has also revealed other implications in teaching controversial issues in history that are linked to critical thinking and multi- perspectivity. History taught by means of controversial issues can be the basis for citizenship education, because democracy is based on the primordial role of the people in decision making (Holden, 2002; Wassermann et al., 2008). Critical thinking about controversial issues in history therefore has the ability to prepare learners to be responsible citizens in a free society by preparing them on how to fairly evaluate various perspectives on an issue. Learners can be prepared on how to anticipate
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barriers to achieving acceptance of their points of view (Burron, 2006) because discussion is a key element for the general social aims of democracy (McCully, 2006). In this regard empirical evidence exists that learners who regularly take part in classroom discussions in history are more likely to become interested in political processes by, for instance, voting, following the news in the media or influencing public policy (Barton & McCully, 2007).
In light of the above ideas, there is no loss by linking history and citizenship through raising questions about different ideas of what it means to be a ‘good citizen’ over time and context and the changing relationships between leaders and the society.
Similarly, relationships between groups over time can inform present and future relationships between different groups in society. Thus, teaching controversial issues in history could help learners to be more understanding and more tolerant. A point in case is the argument that offering topics such as the Holocaust in history encourages respect for all in order to prevent atrocities from happening again (Philips, 2008).
It is also proposed in the literature that learners need to study about their country’s past and how it relates to their present lives (Arthur, Davies, Wrenn, Haydn, & Kerr, 2001; Cole, 2007). The view is expressed that this would hopefully be done in a manner which supports democracy and responsible participation instead of re- igniting sectarianism and conflict (Murphy & Gallagher, 2009).
Despite the interests of teaching controversial topics in history there are some reservations about teaching it. This is based on teachers’ competence and attitudes, community reactions and practical issues. Additionally there is a doubt about the educational value of teaching controversial issues because it may increase doubt and controversy amongst both learners and teachers (Waterson, 2007). McCully (2012), for example, doubts the success of multi-perspectivity when history learned at school is not related to young people’s daily cultural and political experiences.
Another doubt is related to methodological aspects related to teaching controversial issues. For instance, the discussion about controversial topics could be unproductive due to chorus style responses. This can result in only a few learners participating
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and is likely to undermine the benefits envisioned for open discussion (McCully, 2006; The Historical Association, 2007).
Furthermore, history teachers’ attitudes and competence vis-à-vis controversies are another challenge in teaching such topics. Some teachers shy away from these issues. Escaping or avoiding controversial issues may be caused by a lack of skills and techniques for dealing efficiently with conflict in their classrooms. In addition some teachers may lack subject knowledge and a lack of understanding learners’
misconceptions. However, there are also other history teachers who are competent but intentionally skip controversial topics arguing that either these issues are inappropriate for the age group or learners lack the maturity in understanding them.
In some schools, teachers are complicit with the learners’ line of not talking about the issues because controversial issues are very complex (The Historical Association, 2007). In other cases teachers are influenced by the school environment. For instance, in Britain, a school avoided selecting the Holocaust as a topic out of fear of anti-Semitic sentiment and denial of the Holocaust by the predominant Muslim learners (Philips, 2008).
History teachers as avoiders of controversial topics also fear that they could cause offence or end-up challenging views held in the community. Consequently, fearing litigation and conflict the wish to maintain a safe world is foregrounded. Other history teachers give little value to controversial topics or assume that they will be taught in other subjects for example in citizenship or religious education (Chikoko et al., 2011).
Regarding practical issues, some teachers do not tackle controversial issues arguing that the curriculum does not allow enough time for such discussions (Chikoko et al., 2011). Apart from issues related to the curriculum other constraints identified related to the teaching of controversial issues include a paucity of resources, inadequate teacher access to high-quality training and lack of being willing to take risks (The Historical Association, 2007). In the process, by avoiding certain types of conflict by not engaging with controversial issues, teachers lose important opportunities to increase learners’ motivation, creativity, intellectual development and learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1979).
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The teaching of controversial issues can help learners understand some issues related to their lives or current situation such as identity or terrorism. In their mission, schools have certain roles to play in the society including the necessity of developing learners’ critical analysis. Teachers who avoid teaching critical skills through controversial issues can expose learners to propaganda and foster learners’ inability to defend their ideas publicly by means of evidence. Teaching controversial issues can provide both teachers and learners an opportunity to reflect, to practice some skills related to controversial issues and to comprehend these issues and their historical context. In view of improving the educational context, teachers and learners could learn to listen and respect others’ perspectives and could accept doubt and be challenged about their views. In general, teachers who avoid controversial issues lack either the mastering of the content or pedagogical skills to guide debate and dialogue. The socio-political context in which teachers operate also influences the teaching of controversial issues. Post-conflict societies dealt in different ways the teaching of history and more specifically teaching controversial issues.