4. CHAPTER FOUR: THE VALUE OF NINETEENTH CENTURY ETHNO- HISTORY IN STUDYING DECORATIVE METALWORK IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
4.5: ETHNO-HISTORICAL REPORTS ON FORGING AND SMITHING IN THE 19TH CENTURY
There are many 19th century ethno-graphical reports on smithing from visitors to the region who observed the manufacture of utilitarian and non-utilitarian objects (Campbell, 1822; Burchell, 1953; Moffat, 1845; Hambly, 1934; Larson, 1975). The technology used for making small items at a smithing site, such as domestic tools and ornaments is juxtaposed against that used for larger objects such as knives, axes and spears for daily use as compared with those made for ceremonial occasions (Campbell, 1822; Burchell, 1953;
Baines, 1845; Moffat, 1845; Galton, 1851; Knight-Bruce, 1895; Junod, 1927; Stayt, 1931, Shaw, 1938, Shaw & Van Warmelo, 1974; Larson, 1975; Maggs, 1986, 1992; Childs, 1991a/c). The production of certain objects, required by a community in large quantities such as iron weapons for conflict, led to specialisation in the manufacture of these objects.
Metal smiths who worked with copper and brass, especially those associated with the
kings amongst the Zulu, and including other cultural groups such as the Xhosa were considered to be of a superior class to those who worked with iron (Shaw & Van Warmelo, 1974; Childs, 1991a; Maggs, 1992; Roodt, 1993)
The smith’s tools in the 19th century AD consisted of bellows, hammers of stone and iron, a stone anvil, cutting and punching tools; awls and chisels, and crucibles of sandstone or ceramic material, while some works-shops had iron tongs and perhaps a file. This has been summarised in Table 4.1 which shows that most cultural groups possessed a rudimentary collection of tools while some groups enjoyed a wider range of tools (Moffat, 1842; McLaren, 1918; Stayt, 1934; Hambly, 1934; Cooke, 1959; 1966;
Shaw & Van Warmelo, 1974; Davison, 1984; Miller, 2002). Amongst a few cultural groups in southern Africa the draw plate was used, notably among the Venda, Lemba and Sotho/Tswana, where Moffat (1842) was encouraged to make one for a copper smith in Kurrichane (Casalis, 1965; Maggs, 1976; Shaw, 1974; Van Schalkwyk, 1982;
Davison, 1984; Friede & Steel, 1975).
Ethno-graphic reports of the actual smith’s processes were provided by Casalis (1965), Hambly (1934), Franklin (1945), Maggs (1992) and Shaw & Van Warmelo (1975). The descriptions of forge or smithing places amongst a variety of cultural groups bear strong similarity to one another throughout southern Africa. Figure 4.5 portrays a metal smith at work with his junior assistant pumping the bag-bellows. The paucity of tools is noted in the illustration. Some ethnologists have observed that booths were built for protection against the sun (Read, 1902, Bellamy, 1909, Hambly, 1934; Ellert, 1984).
Figure 4.5 Smithing taking place at a small scale metal smith’s workshop aided by the metal smith’s assistant operating leather bellows near Lake Shirwa, southern Malawi.
(Livingstone’s African Journal, Livingstone, D. & C. 1963:103)
Amongst the Ovimbundu of Angola, Hambly (1934) noted that the forge was placed within a shelter under which a pit 26 cm deep was created and filled with charcoal.
Around this cavity were three stone seats for workers, two operate bowl-bellows, and,
while a detailed report on the metal-smiths activities are omitted, there is a detailed inventory of the tools that the metal smith was making, including the ceremonial hammer (Hambly, 1934) which was particular to this region. Hambley’s (1934) report is corroborated by Read (1902), who mentions the symbolism attached to this object and the ceremonial event that accompanied the graduation of an apprentice to the status of professional metal worker (Ellenberger, 1912). Casalis’s (1965) report on a South Sotho metal smith at work is more detailed. The smithing site consists of a hearth placed between two low protective walls. The apprentice manipulates two long bag-bellows which end in a horn tube, to maintain the heat in the fireplace. An inventory of manufactured objects follows without a description of the details of the smithing activity except for a reference to the decoration of some objects with chasing. Casalis (1965:
132) adds that the Southern Sotho work in copper, and are expert at fine drawing wire although the group’s uses for it are not described.
Shaw & Van Warmelo (1974) describe how the 20th century Xhosa forge was created from an anthill or from a small mound of clay, measuring about 60 cm high, which had been cut straight down one side. From the outer side a tunnel was created to reach the fireplace. The nozzles of the active bellows were linked to the hearth to maintain the temperature (Shaw & Van Warmelo, 1974). In the same area a different type of forge was described by Döhne (1837) as a little round hill 60 cm by 45 cm, was concave and equipped with two holes. A feature of Xhosa smelting lore, according to Döhne (reporting in 1837) was that the metal workers would cover pieces of iron with clay prior to replacing them in the hearth, to “prevent it from burning” especially when welding was considered (Shaw & Van Warmelo, 1974: 125).
Whilst residing in KwaZulu-Natal, Dedekind (1929) visited Hloma Mathonsi, a renowned metal smith, and wrote an account of his experience at the metal smith’s forge (Maggs, 1992). The tools used by this metal smith bear similarity to those utilised elsewhere in southern Africa, goat skin bellows, horns to providing a conduit into the ceramic tuyères to feed the hearth, charcoal made of hardwoods, a rock anvil, a homemade iron hammer and a hollow rock containing water to temper the objects (Maggs, 1992). In this context the activity of forging commenced with the hot iron retrieved from the fire and beaten on the anvil. The activity was repeated until the desired shape was achieved, and finally the object was sharpened and polished with suitable stones (Maggs, 1992). While travelling in the KwaZulu-Natal country side Mason (1855) described an unusual encounter with indigenous smiths surrounding a hearth and anvil where there was a lack of bellows. He noticed that a group of twelve metal workers each held a moderate sized (1.5 kg mass) pebble (or stone) to use as a hammer. “The whole party then commenced blowing on the
fire with their mouths, six at a time, alternatively, until they had brought the iron to a bright glowing heat” (Mason, 1855 : 164). Thereafter the hot iron was placed at the other end of the anvil, where a metal worker secured it and the rest kept up an incessant hammering until the iron grew cold and the process was repeated (Mason, 1855).
The melting, forging, and smithing of imported brass in Natal in the early 19th century is described by both by Gardener (1836) and Fynn, an English traveller and trader (quoted in Stuart & Malcolm, 1950). Gardener described the event taking place around a hearth created in a hollow in the soil and fed by two bag-bellows pumping air into the embers through eland’s horns. A crucible containing brass was placed within the fire and held there until molten. It was then poured into moulds for bars for creating throat rings and bangles. Smaller moulds were used for knobs and studs (Gardener, 1836: 105; Shooter, 1857). Fynn (Stuart & Malcolm, 1959: 273) reports that brass smiths used sandstone crucibles which held sufficient heat to melt brass. Some moulds for beads were made with cow-dung placed in a circle on an aloe leaf, in the centre of this mould a splinter of wood was placed to form a hole by which the beads were strung. The melted brass is then poured in, leaving them in a rough shapes, after which they were beaten with a hammer and brought to the desired form (Stuart & Malcolm, 1950: 273). The neck-rings are formed by casting them into cow-dung channels on the anvil stone which is of a gritty nature or in sandstone moulds (Parkington & Cronin, 1979). The brass objects are treated by filing them with abrasive stones and polishing them with cow-dung (Stuart &
Malcolm, 1950: 273) (Figure 6.18, 6.19) for examples of neck-rings cast in (what could be) cow-dung, and the other identified by rough filing).
Smithing of copper amongst the Venda / Lemba and Tonga is described by Junod (1908) and Stayt (1931). In north-eastern, South Africa in the 20th century the Venda / Lemba were known to use iron draw-plates (magogo) and sturdy tongs (ngwenya) to produce fine wire from copper (Junod, 1909; Stayt, 1931; Shaw, 1974; Van Schalkwyk, 1982; Steel, 1974; Davison, 1984). Stayt (1931) attests that in the melting copper, lead obtained in the early days from the Portuguese, was added to the copper, to alter the colour and assist in the drawing process. Later in time, Stayt (1931) adds, that solder was used for the same purpose. Junod describes the sequence of the copper rod “ritsondjolo” being sold to the Lemba who converted it into fine wire to make bracelets (busenga) with which they traded to support themselves (Junod, 1908:279). For a brief description of musuku and lerale and their distribution in the region see Table 4.2, and 4.3. Stayt (1931: 65) reports that in the manufacture of beads an attempt at uniform size was achieved by using a device;
described as a small iron staple with two lines engraved across the face, it was used for cutting copper wire into uniform short lengths for making large copper studs on bracelets.
This is one record in the ethnographic accounts describing attempts at standardisation in
the bead making industry another record is of the endeavour at producing standard gauges of wire for wire-wound bracelets by using the draw-plate and tongs.
4.6: ETHNO-HISTORICAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE OBJECTS MADE IN THE