4. CHAPTER FOUR: THE VALUE OF NINETEENTH CENTURY ETHNO- HISTORY IN STUDYING DECORATIVE METALWORK IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
4.7.4: THE MANUFACTURE OF AXES FOR GENERAL USE
4.7.5.1: THE MANUFACTURE OF ORNAMENTATION: BEADS
The smallest ornamental objects made by metal craftsmen were iron, copper and brass beads. The measurements of these range between 2.0 mm and 9.0 mm in width and 0.5 mm and 14.0 mm in depth (See Table 4.7, 5.5, 5.8, 5.9) (see Appendix. 5). A limitation in the gathering of information on beads means that it is not always clear whether glass or metal beads are being discussed in the various sources (Backhouse, 1844). While a wide range of ethnologists and visitors have commented on ornamental objects worn by the inhabitants they have had no clear guide as to the obvious use and consequently it is not surprising that a number of descriptions from separate sources exist for the same object. Metal beads have been variously called rings (Burchell, 1953; Lichtenstein, 1928;
Shaw & Van Warmelo 1974), links (Larson, 1975), small tongues of metal (Junod, 1927) and studs, either for decorating leather aprons or to be used as spacers on copper bracelets (Gardener, 1835; Stayt, 1931). Many authors have mentioned observing beads in material cultures while omitting further descriptions on their manufacture (Andersson, 1861).
Beads of iron and copper were used amongst the Mpukushu (see Chapter 6) (Andersson, 1861; Van Tonder, 1966; Larson, 1975). The Tswana enjoyed displaying a variety of copper beads (Lichtenstein, 1928); while some made by Bushmen (see Chapter 6) are archived in the Iziko Museum.
Campbell (1822) mentions that he saw iron beads amongst the Tswana while Burchell (1953) after describing the local attraction to glass beads, adds that iron and copper are worn in profusion but were less esteemed amongst the Sotho/Tswana. Burchell (1953) in ca. 1812 classified a bead a ‘ring’ which was manufactured to be placed at intervals on wire-wound bracelets. A greater number of ‘rings’ would make a bracelet more costly and of greater value, while the most expensive would be a bracelet made entirely of ‘rings’
(Burchell, 1953: 400). The manufacture of the ‘ring’ comprised short lengths of copper bent into a circular form and the ends deftly hammered (Burchell, 1953: 400). The author attested to their popularity by stating that the bracelets are so favoured that they were seen in profusion on wrists and just under the knee of men and women (Burchell, 1953).
Backhouse (1844) while in the Eastern Cape noted that a woman had brass ornaments attached to her petticoat, which suggests some interaction with the Northern Nguni who
stitched ‘knobs’ and ‘studs’ to their garments (Gardener, 1835). Casalis (1965: 151-152) called some beads ‘balls of iron and copper’ for the want of the word beads which were incorporated into necklaces and girdles. Shaw and Van Warmelo (1974) noted that some of the ‘rings’ were made of iron amongst the southern Nguni, but were more often made of brass. They were made by flattening a piece of metal into a plate of the desired thickness, and then cutting from this strips of the desired length and width which were then bent around a mandrel of the desired size and attached to girdles (Shaw & Van Warmelo, 1974).
Figure 4.9 Distribution of iron and copper beads in southern Africa, information assembled from literary records.
The description of the manufacture of copper beads submitted by Davison (1984) is similar. She states that ornaments of hand-forged metal were rare in the 1930s and are now considered heirlooms. The kherogaana beads of the ‘wrap-around’ type that is, made from a strip of hand-worked copper, cut and bent into a circle are amongst the oldest Lobedu objects in the Iziko Museum collection (Davison, 1984: 176).
The large brass beads made by brass-smiths in KwaZulu-Natal were mentioned by a few of the early visitors to the area and by subsequent ethnographers and were known as indondo. According to Fynn (Stuart & Malcolm, 1959) owning them added to the owner and wearer’s prestige in the community (Gardener, 1855; Fynn, 1825 (Stuart & Malcolm, 1959); Shooter, 1857; Kennedy, 1991; Roodt, 1993). Large and small brass beads were used to decorate the ingcayi (izingcayi) a pliable tanned duiker hide frontal garment, also known as a petticoat, decorated with brass beads of various sizes (Gardener, 1936;
Shooter, 1857; Tyler, 1891; Kennedy, 1991, Roodt, 1996). They were worn by brides for the year following her wedding, and longer regardless of whether she was pregnant or not (Wood, 1966). Roodt (1996: 96) mentions a variety of smaller beads than the indondo used by the Zulu women: they were the pentagonal izimulwane and about 10.0 mm in diameter, the ubuhlalu a small bead ca. 5.0 mm in diameter, and the iqhosha made specifically to decorate skin garments.
Table 4.7 Distribution of beads as noted by ethnologists and anthropologists in the 18th– 20th centuries, sourced from relevant literature.
Table 4.7 shows that information gathered by ethnologists, anthropologists, missionaries and archaeologists observed the presence of metal beads throughout southern Africa. All four metals; iron, copper, bronze and brass were used for this form of decoration, which could be strung around the neck (Hall & Neil, 1972:94; Garlake, 1969: 45), around the waist attached to girdles (Lichtenstein, 1928: 339; Shaw and Van Warmelo, 1974: 126), sewn to women’s leather garments (Backhouse, 1844: 152; Mason, 1986: 24; Morris, 1981; 41), or used as spacers on wire-wound bracelets (Burchell 1953:400). The most common forms were cylindrical and barrel shapes. Infrequently biconical beads are noted in Zimbabwean collection (see Appendix 10). There is additional emphasis on those made in KwaZulu-Natal as they were large and cast in brass. Some of them were known for their great bulk in mass and size, while others were recorded as ‘knobs and studs’.
Author Place Metal Period Other information
Wikar, 1779 Northern Cape Copper Late-18th century Burchell, 1824 North West Province Copper Mid-19th century
Gardener, 1835 KwaZulu/Natal Brass Mid-19th century Called knobs and studs
Angas, 1849 KwaZulu/Natal Brass Mid-19th century Indondo Shooter, 1857 KwaZulu/Natal Brass Mid-19th century Knobs and studs Casalis, 1855 Lesotho Iron and copper Mid-19th century
Flynn, 1861) Stuart, & Malcolm, 1950
KwaZulu/Natal Brass Mid-19th century Indondo
Stayt, 1931 Limpopo Province Copper Mid-20th century
Laidler, 1934 Lesotho Copper Mid-20th century Sewn onto garments Martin, 1940 Zimbabwe Brass Mid-20th century Cylindrical and
biconical Hager, 1940 North West Province Copper
Gold
Mid-20th century Cylindrical Bryant, 1949 KwaZulu/Natal Brass 19th century Imfibinga/ indondo Krige, 1950 KwaZulu/Natal Brass 19th century Indondo
Von Sicard, 1955 Zimbabwe:
Cipise
Copper / bronze (15)
Iron (18)
Some are biconical
Larson, 1975 Botswana Iron / copper Mid-20th century No description Webb, & Wright,
1976, 1982
KwaZulu/Natal Brass 19th century Iqhosha, indondo, Van Schalkwyk, 1982 Ndzundza Copper Mid-20th century No information Davison, 1984 Limpopo Province Copper Mid-20th century Cylindrical, barrel Kennedy, 1991 KwaZulu/Natal Brass 19th century Indondo,
Roodt, 1993, 1996 KwaZulu/Natal Brass 19th century Indondo, imulwane, iqhosha
The mention of gold artefacts in the 19th century by ethnologists in southern Africa is fragmentary. Anhaeusser (2012: 2) reported that in the 19th century gold mining in Zimbabwe was largely forgotten and abandoned by the time the first Europeans arrived.
Gold beads were noticed by Bain (1949: 9) in northern Botswana. They were strung around the neck of chief Sebego and were described as “beads of virgin gold”. There is no further information.