CHAPTER SEVEN: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
7.6 Research approach
7.6.8 Ethnographic study
Ethnography originated from cultural anthropology, and basically concentrates on small- scale groups by focusing on the characteristics, structures and the way in which cultures are maintained (Goulding, 2005). He further reports that ethnography is majorly known with the intensive labour that accompanies the study and the lengthy contact with study group members in order to collect robust and whole data that should give realistic explanations about the phenomenon under study. Ethnography is a type of qualitative study where researchers investigate cultural groups in the contextual background for a period of time in order to gather information through interviews and individual or participant observations (Creswell, 2009). Therefore, it could be implied that it is a research that is very open-ended in its approach to obtaining understanding instead of the basic measurement of the phenomenon as done in scientific methods. Maylor and Blackmon (2005) summarise the systematic and ethnographic approaches as shown in the table below.
Table 7.3 Comparing scientific and ethnographic approaches: a summary
Characteristics Scientific approach Ethnographic approach
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Research philosophy Philosophy of science Philosophy of social science
Research perspectives Positivism Relativism Empiricism
Interpretivism Constructivism Subjectivism
Archetype Laboratory experiment Participating in the field of interest
Questions that can be answered What, how much Why, how
Starting point Structure for data - you know what you need to collect as led by theory
Unstructured - what you need to do emerges as led by data
World-view Objective- the research is independent Subjective - the researcher is part of what is being researched
Objective of the study To find general patterns or laws - generality as well as statistically significant results
To understand meaning in one specific situation - depth and valuable, transferable results
Underlying logic Deduction Induction
Who uses Commonly used in economics,
finance, operations research, management science and marketing
Commonly utilised in human resource management, organisational
behaviour, organisational science
Role of theory Testing theory through development
of hypotheses, collection of data, verification
Generation of theory through pattern analysis
Process Predominantly linear, sequential,
ordered
Predominantly iterative, overlapping, messy
Associated methods Scientific method of which surveys are as an example. Modelled on closed-system experiments, minimising bias but limiting the possibility of discovery
Video diaries. Recognises social systems, and ties to acknowledge personal biases and tries to keep an open mind
Data type Predominantly quantitative,
predetermined
Predominantly qualitative, for example a series of statements or impressions
Finding Measure Meaning
Data analysis Statistical through rules and
procedures
Thematic through intuition Quality Validity, reliability, generalisability Makes good use of a recognised
method, neutrality and transparency
Source: Adapted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005, p. 161).
Table 7.3 summarised dissimilarities among ethnographic and scientific approaches to research which were presented through the use of fundamental characteristics of basic investigation as a standard of comparison.
The municipality under study is a political organisation which required that care be demonstrated in the type of information sought. As a result of this, permission to study how policies are formulated and implemented through the structures of the organisation was neither sought nor granted. Therefore, use was not made of pictures or video journals as those were not permissible. However, semi-structured interviews were conducted and use was made of semi-structured open-ended questions in gathering qualitative data so as to draw information that is unadulterated and generate written transcripts and verbal words directly from respondents and interviewees.
171 7.6.9 Archival study
To Saunders et al. (2009), archival research strategy is one that involves the use of documents belonging to an organisation as main source of gathering data. Denzin (1978) in Berg (2009), reports that archival documents are of two types, namely private and public archival records.
Public records are usually prepared for the sole aim of assessment by others although access to some of them may be restricted, e.g. credit records, some law enforcement documents, and school documents. On the other hand, private records of an archival nature are classically for personal or private viewers (Berg, 2009). Moreover, archival records are secondary sources of data that help researchers in answering the questions asked in a study particularly those that have to do with history and the phases through which the phenomenon being investigated passed through. Therefore, to conduct an archival research, a researcher needs to be sure that data will be made available to him/her by the authorities concerned before embarking on the study.
In addition, Maylor and Blackmon (2007) have suggested four core subjects that archival researchers need to address upon commencing their studies. They are: will the researcher be required to pay for the availability of the data? Has the required data been proceed or is it still in a raw state? Is the data correct? How focused is the data about the phenomenon or the organisation?
Addressing these issues correctly makes an archival researcher and the outcome of the study very excellent, nevertheless this does not excuse an archival research from flaws that other research approaches that make use of secondary data sources are faced with. In Table 5.6 below is a summary of the flaws and merits of studies that collect and analyse data from secondary sources in the three core research areas: analysis, contribution and effort.
Table 7.4 Flaws and merits of secondary data analysis
Key areas in research Strengths Weaknesses
Effort Less costly and time consuming
data collection, allowing more time for data analysis.
Researchers need to familiarise themselves with the data.
Ability to manage large and complex data set.
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It may be expensive if payment is required.
Analysis Access to high quality data,
comparing subgroups or subsets within the data sample.
Comparing subgroups or subsets in other countries.
Researchers lack control of the quality of the data as the data has already been collected.
The data may be biased in unobservable ways.
The data may lack the ability to answer key research questions.
Contribution Re-interpretation of original
findings by providing adequate analysis of the data set.
Lack of rigorous and purposeful data collection from primary sources; does not build as many research skills as direct methods.
Source: Adopted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005, p. 173).
To obtain data regarding the employee health and wellness programme adopted by the municipality investigated, archival research strategy was engaged. The Employee Health and Wellness Strategic Framework for the Public Service document published by the Department of Public Service were perused for information about the wellness programme. Such information like the reason for the adoption of the wellness programme and details of its implementation were accessed. Also, the Municipality’s HR Department furnished the researcher with relevant information regarding the type of strategies embedded in the wellness programmes.