CHAPTER THREE: WORK-LIFE BALANCE STRATEGIES (WLBS)
3.3 Theories supporting WLBS in this study
Apparently, family and work are connected to one another, therefore, interest in the development of approaches to advance understanding into the interface among them has grown among scholars and practitioners (Voydanoff, 2005b). The boundary theory and ecological systems help in providing useful conceptualisations. Voydanoff (2005a) explains that the ecological systems theory views family and work as microsystems comprising activities, duties, and interactive networks of relationships that happen on a one-on-one basis. This implies that whatever happens in the work domain whether they are demands or resources, impacts somehow on the family domain (cross-domain processes). According to Voydanoff (2004) and Edwards and Rothbard (2000), “cross-domain processes include resource drain, resource generation, and positive and negative spillover” Hence, the use of resources made for one domain, for instance quality time with family (drain), generates resources for work, while earnings from the work domain can be used to sustain the family domain. But spillover (negative and positive) will not be discussed in this study because it may not be significant to the study.
The boundary theory proposes that where the borders between family and work microsystems become amply porous and elastic, practices happen that cause some aspects of family and work spheres to impact one another (Ashforth, Kreiner, & Fugate, 2000). When the boundary between work and family is permeable, the demands, resources and strategies available in one domain influence individual outcomes in both domains. Voydanoff (2005) suggests that seeming WLB is a cognitive assessment of the influence of the family and work spheres on one another. This implies that the perception that individuals have is that the interaction among resources and demands in the work and family domains influence each other positively and negatively. Lazarus and Folkman (1984b) suggest that perceptive appraisal is the practise of
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determining if an experience is positive, demanding (challenging) or unnecessary with respect to wellness (Voydanoff, 2005b). When people perceive that the challenges (needs) in the environment are more than the resources (strategies) available to meet them, they appraise the situation as being demanding or stressful (Crawford, LePine, & Rich, 2010). Demands include those designed or mental claims that involvement with a particular role makes on an individual and these include norms and expectations that a person is required to conform to in the course of performing a mental or physical task. Resources comprise those organised or mental assets which could be used in improving performance, reducing challenges or developing more resources (Voydanoff, 2004).This study aims to ascertain if employees perceived that they achieved WLB and addressed their work-family stressors by using the WLBS in place at the municipality. There are theories that underpin what WLBS are adopted by organisations.
3.3.1 Theories underlying the adoption of WLBS
Felstead et al. (2002)report on four theories underlie an organisation’s adoption of WLBS.
They are institutional theory, organisational adaptation theory, high commitment theory plus situational theory ( Wood, 1999). Felstead et al. (2002) further suggest that in contemporary times, the commencement of the assumptions of each of these theories is the perception of an intensification of focus on organisations’ supportive family policies and WLB. Moreover, they report that independently, the theories predict the sectors in the economy where they are most predominantly found.
The institutional theory postulates that organisations mirror and adapt to the influence of societal norms, though to differing levels (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Oliver, 1991; Powell &
DiMaggio, 2012). The need to sustain compliance to societal norms drives the differences in the level of adaptations by organisations and may not permit the adoption of realistic strategies to address real employee needs. Large corporate sector organisations and the public sector institutions are majorly found among those that usually want to conform to norms due to their visibility resulting from size and accountability to their constituencies respectively.
Organisations realise that inability to conform could destroy their standing with stake-holders (clients, suppliers, and current employees), and may challenge the recruitment of talented employees (McKee, Mauthner & Maclean, 2000). In line with this same reasoning, organisations that have trade unions and exposure to public scrutiny are more likely under pressure to conform than those that do not have these settings (unions). But, a reversed outcome might result when conformity underpins adoption of a policy. It could foster organisational
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inflexibility and hinder external bodies from pressuring the organisation to conform. Based on this, the implementation of WLBS can be predicted to differ as a result of scope, industry/sector, and presence or absence of trade unions (Felstead et al., 2002).
Contemporary literature shows that there are studies proving that the institutional theory is a simplified description (Fuenfschilling & Truffer, 2014; Goodstein, 1994; Ingram & Simons, 1995; H. Morgan & Milliken, 1992). Therefore another conception that organisations should react to normative arrangements in society and explore ways of making this known to and adapted by top management was formulated. This is known as organisational adaptation theory. It keeps the proposition of predictors by the institutional theorists and integrates other factors that are associated to the developmental process of recognition and interpretation of emerging trends around an organisation. Some of the newly integrated variables to this perspective include the nature of the labour force, the organisational environment and structure, and the behaviour of management to matters surrounding WLBS (Felstead et al., 2002).
According to this theory, for example, the gender constitution of the working population in an organisation affects the degree of recognition that management accords the importance of the issue.
This theory (organisational adaptation theory) postulates that the level of responsiveness of an organisation to pressures from the society is based on the number of female employees. This suggestion is based on the assumption that female employees present stronger demands for WLBS. The employment of women employees on a part-time basis may to a great extent moderate the weight assigned by management to the provision of WLBS in an organisation (Felstead et al., 2002). Likewise, some other aspects of the workplace could develop or lessen the way in which an organisation responds to the pressures emanating from the society. The scholars further suggest that the kind of job performed may contribute to management responsiveness. For instance, professional level employees and top management are often presumed to be highly mobile in the labour market, switching employment if organisations do not meet the conditions of service that they consider acceptable, whether expressed or implied(Bauder, 2012; Beaverstock & Hall, 2012; Vaiman, Scullion, & Collings, 2012). For this same cause, talented professional employees are considered challenging to replace, giving them the power to negotiate with management and employers.
The way in which work is designed in an organisation can also affect its implementation of WLBS. For example, it will be easier for an organisation that has given significant autonomy
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to employees to carry out their duties and decide the pace of work to grant additional concessions with respect to time and space of job performance. In addition, the theory (organisational adaptation theory) suggests that the way societal norms are perceived and interpreted in an organisation could be impacted by the values that the top management holds.
For instance, where the attitude of management highlights their feeling that the workplace ought to assist employees in managing their work-life demands, the likelihood of promoting and supporting the implementation of WLBS are high.
High commitment theory is proposed to describe the variations in the use of WLBS and their implementation at different organisations. It is an offshoot of the attention on work organisations and the relationships between employees and the employers seeking to improve the dedication of employees to the workplace(Gallie, Felstead, & Green, 2001). According toFelstead and Ashton (2000), these human resource interventions are central to finding ways of promoting more engagement between management and employees as well as creating transparency of decisions and making information readily available to employees for examination or analysis. Osterman (1995) is of the opinion that employees’ commitment to an organisation can be enhanced by the demonstration of the employers’ understanding and acceptance of the work-life challenges faced by employees(Brescoll, Glass, & Sedlovskaya, 2013; den Dulk, Peters, & Poutsma, 2012; Wang & Verma, 2012). Providing WLBS to assist workers address their work-life challenges is the most glaring sign that employers appreciate employee challenges (Felstead et al., 2002). The theory submits that there is a connection between the HR policy of an organisation and the implementation of WLBS.
In conclusion Wood’s (1999b) theory known as situational theory is more practical in its method because it submits that workplaces merely respond and try to counter issues of stress as they emerge in their WLBS use. To Osterman (1995), this is known as the pragmatic reaction theory. This perspective views the adoption of WLBS by an organisation as emanating from neither variation in the national value structures as recommended in the institutional and organisational adaptation theories, nor the beginning of HR’s ground-breaking strategies as suggested by high commitment theory. Instead, it is founded on the establishment of defined challenges that threaten organisational performance and profit (Felstead et al., 2002). Some of these challenges may include absenteeism, high rate of employee turnover, unoccupied vacant positions, and ailing workforce as a result of a pandemic (e.g. HIV/AIDS). In light of this, the theory observes that WLBS are direct initiatives that try to tackle the foregoing issues and
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others that appear to be like them. Addressing situations as they arise instead of proactively appraising situations before challenges emerge may be ineffective.
The municipality under study adopted wellness programmes (explained in details in chapter 2) to address issues like financial problems arising from debts and debt recovery, alcoholism and substance abuse, and effects of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. From the evaluation of the theories in the literature, this researcher considers that the adoption of this programme (wellness) as a WLBS by the municipality investigated is based on both the situational and institutional theory.
The rationale for this opinion is that the municipality is a public entity that must comply with the framework provided by the Department of Public Service. Secondly, the need to address emerging pandemics (HIV/AIDS) as well chronic diseases among employees and their family required a pragmatic intervention, such as the wellness programme, to be implemented.
The wellness programme is an aspect of WLBS needed to assist employees in managing their work and family related challenges. Other aspects of WLBS are reviewed in this study to place the concept into perspective.