CHAPTER FIVE: WORK-LIFE BALANCE (WLB)
5.6 Traditional theories of work-life balance
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The gaps in the literature have given rise to the present study’s purpose in exploring the relationship between WLB (achievement of satisfaction with work and family situations) and SOC.
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report also that fulfilment and un-fulfilment in any one of the major life spheres ‘spills over’
to the least important spheres thereby impact satisfaction with life. Although there are studies that support the spill over model, it is still a generalised proposition (Guest, 2002). This could be as a result of definition and measurement challenges associated with the concept.
According to Sumer and Knight (2001), studies on this theory have concentrated on the work place encounters and their resultant effects spilling over into the domestic arena (Rice, McFarlin, Hunt, & Near, 1985). Nevertheless, there is evidence that family experiences spill over to work (Kirchmeyer, 1992; Crouter, 1984). Scholars have also agreed that spill over could be “positive or negative”. When the home domain facilitates or improves the work domain, spill over is positive; whereas if it hampers or poses challenges in the work domain, it is said to be negative (Kirchmeyer, 1992; Lambert, 1990; Crouter, 1984). In this context, scholars on the spill over theory, suggest that it could be beneficial for organisations to assist their workers with the means of handling their work-life issues since neglecting these will be costly in employees’ performance and efficiency (Geurts & Demerouti, 2003; Mulvaney, O’Neill, Cleveland, & Crouter, 2007). This supports the integration of WLBS as practices adopted by workplaces to assist employees cope with work and family stressors into this study’s exploration of the connection between WLB and SOC.
But the theory needs to be tested in line with other variables in order for it to be applied to a study in which the relationship with other variables is considered in exploring WLB. The assumptions of the spill over theory are therefore not sufficient to make realistic deductions in WLB examination. However, its relevance to the present study is in the analysis of the effect of WLBS in the workplace on an individual employee’s ability (SOC in this case) to cope with stressors emanating from the home and work domains. This is based on the assumption that the level of work spilling over to family and family to work is a function of the strength/weakness of a person’s SOC.
5.6.2 Compensation theory
This is a proposition that suggests that the inadequacies of one domain with respect to fulfilment or strains, has the capacity of being met in another (Perry‐Jenkins, Repetti, &
Crouter, 2000). The theory appraises the tendency of an individual to allow the feelings of satisfaction that he/she may have gained from working long hours and achieving a given target to pay-off for the disappointment he felt for not attending an important family meeting because
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of the extra hours at work. It suggests that experiences at work and those at home are contrary to each other; implying that there is an opposing association between the two domains.
According to Lambert (1990), the effect of compensation is always un-intended. Responses that are peculiar to individuals are often manifested in un-fulfilment intervening between objective situations in one sphere, and the unexpected results in another sphere. For instance, the promotion received by an employee may improve the respect he/she feels they should receive at home. Sumer and Knight (2001) suggest that compensation happens when a person who is dissatisfied with the occurrences in one domain decides to become more actively involved in another domain. They further assert that the overall outcome of compensation is highlighted by the discrepancy in the levels of engagement at work and home.
The present study views compensation as a behaviour that could be attributed to a person’s coping abilities (such as SOC explained in detail in Chapter four), which could influence an individual to address work and family demands instead of striving to achieve WLB or vice versa. It views compensation as the manifestation associated with inability to objectively assess the situation and make adjustments to constructively balance the two domains of work and family.
Zedeck (1992) is of the view that compensation and spill over theories fail to address major issues in the challenges of WLB (Clark, 2000). For instance Champoux (1978) discovered that compensation and spill over could happen concurrently within a person, thereby leaving no room for predictions or reasons to choose to react in one way and not another (Clark, 2000;
Lambert, 1990). Many studies on the work and family interface may have lacked sound theoretical framework, or used basic assumptions to describe the findings of studies as a result of the shortcomings of these theories (Clark, 2000; Zedeck, 1992; Lambert, 1990). Clark (2000) suggests that these theories focus on the emotional interface (fulfilment and conflicts) and do not consider the behavioural, shared, dimensional (spatial) and time-based relationships between work and (home) life.
Studies in the past thirty years (1980s - 1990s) have explored more elements that give additional intricacy to the effect that work and family have on one another. For instance, literature in contemporary times has explored the role of the manager in moderating conflicts (Galinsky & Stein, 1990). Likewise, scholars have investigated the effect of family support and cohesion on work stressors (Felstehausen, 1990); a person’s identification with their functions
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at work and at home (Lobel, 1991). Thompson and Bunderson (2001) explored the effect of the significance that work has on an individual’s family life. Also Carlson and Kacmar (2000) discovered that WFC could be easily understood by looking at the values that a person places on the functions of workers and members of the family.
Clark (2000) suggests that though these included elements have intricately affected the study of work and life, none of them developed a complete theory that describes the manner in which conflict and balance happen. This is the reason why the present study describes stressors and their influence on the work-family interface. It also predicts that an employee using WLBS could be able to cope with stressors, improve his/her SOC and go on to achieve WLB.
5.6.3 Segmentation theory
This theory proposes that work and life constitute dual but mutually exclusive domains which do not impact one another (Guest, 2002; Lambert, 1990; Sumer & Knight, 2001), and asserts that work and non-work spheres are dissimilar and have no relationship with one another (Naithani, 2010; Staines, 1980). The theory suggests that what happens at the individual’s work place does not in any way influence what happens at home. This could be contested for the fact that the same person at work is equally the same person at home, the only difference being that, while at work, he/she is guided by rules that are different from those at home in the performance of roles. According to Guest (2002), the theory seems to have been proffered as an assumption that could probably have realistic meaning instead of an idea backed with empirical evidence.
Since the border between work and life is somewhat very difficult to define, it then becomes apparent that further insight is needed to clarify segmentation. However, Bulger, Matthews, and Hoffman (2007) report that although empirical studies in the area of WLB abound, only recently have scholars begun to explore the lines bordering work and family. This theory could become relevant in this study in ascertaining the basis upon which WLBS are crafted. It could also assist in formulating, designing and adopting strategies that tactically address work and family-related challenges and stressors.
5.6.4 Instrumental theory
This theory assumes that events taking place in one domain promotes attainment in the other (Frone, 2003; Guest, 2002). An example is the employee who desires to earn more by accepting to work longer hours in order to buy expensive medication for a sick spouse or a house for a fledgling family. The increased income to a family as a result of the promotion of the
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breadwinner in the workplace could be instrumental to a family vacation or purchase of a new car. In this study, the provision of WLBS at the workplace could become instrumental to the employee’s achievement of relational peace if, for instance, flexible work arrangements are in place. An employee could attend child(ren) programmes at school, have a lunch date with a spouse to celebrate a marriage anniversary on a work day and still work effectively in an organisation that has adopted such work-life practices. In the same context, spousal support could be instrumental to the improved performance at work by an employee.
5.6.5 The conflict theory
Mulvaney et al. (2007) suggest that if involvement in one functional area becomes challenging as a result of involvement in another function, conflicts could arise. These scholars report that conflict can arise as a result of the spill over (explained in sub-section 5.6.1) of work into life and vice versa or through the process explained as resource drain theory (Frone, 2003). The resource drain theory is explained later in this section. The theory proposes that when strain is present in all life’s domains, an individual will have to make trying preferences which may lead to clashes, thereby putting stress on the individual (Guest, 2002). For instance, where there is a need for an employee to work extra hours for a given period and it clashes with the funeral of a relative or an important event at the child(ren)’s school, the decision as to what to do could be stressful. In this case, the choice made to favour one event above the other could result in serious consequences at work and/or at home.
The conflict theory resembles the compensation theory because it supposes that a discordant association exists between work and life (family) because of limited resources (Mulvaney et al., 2007). These scarce resources (strength, time and mental assets) are highly contested for by role performance at work and family domains. Scholars report that the stress arising from this contest results in many unwanted consequences in both domains of life and work (Perry‐
Jenkins et al., 2000). The conflict theory is discussed in the study to highlight the impact that stressful and conflicting situations can have on an employee’s ability to achieve balance.
The theories reviewed in the study could be used for different purposes by individuals and organisations. This is supported by the opinion of Mulvaney et al. (2007) that every one of the theories portends differing effects for organisations. But the use of any of the theories could be more effective if supported by empirical analysis. Although empirical support for the spill over model is documented, the operations of most organisations seem to be in favour of the
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segmentation model (Milliken, Martins, & Morgan, 1998). This thought could be said to inform the WLBS formulated and adopted by organisations aiming to assist individual workers in achieving balance.
According to Guest (2002), all these models are unable to tackle the issue of balance and what makes up balance; therefore there is a need for them to include a breakdown of their causes and effects for them to be useful. The five models (spill over, segmentation, compensation, instrumental and conflict) above are known as traditional models (Guest, 2002). The usefulness of the traditional theories are limited due to the fact that they lack explanations, predictions and methods of solving the problems which people encounter in trying to achieve WLB (Clark, 2000). Clark further reported that models like spill over and compensation are narrow in their analysis; focusing on emotive connections (fulfilment and depression) and offering scarce or no recognition to place (space), transitory common and interactive linkages between work and family domain. She suggested that the models analysed persons as being responsive, having no capacity to be proactive in shaping their work and domestic domains. Clark reiterated that there has been no all-inclusive model which describes the procedure that should lead to the harmony of conflict and balance and suggested the need for a comprehensive theory that should address human behaviour, means through which a person creates meaning, and the complications of work and family circumstances (Clark, 2000).
To address the short comings of the traditional models, contemporary theories were conceptualised such as the border theory, resource drain theory and conservation of resources theory.