The concept of ideology has become a central feature within the various narratives of terrorism and more particularly within the discourse of religious terrorism. However, there are difficulties that present themselves when attempting to define the term ideology despite its prevalence within terrorism literature. One of the problems encountered is the fluctuated meaning of the term in its application to differing contexts. Furthermore, the definition of the term has undergone several changes from the time of its inception in 1786 to its present day usage. Nonetheless, the importance of the relationship between ideology and conflict cannot be undermined as noted by Walid Phares (2007: xiv) who accentuates that
Modern conflicts, especially since the nineteenth century, are grounded in doctrinal roots. Nationalism is the earliest form of militant ideology in the contemporary West, followed by Marxism and fascism. In the Arab and Muslim world, religious fundamentalism took the lead in the nineteenth century, followed by extreme nationalism, which alternated with socialism and Islamism throughout the twentieth century.
2.2.1 Ideological Origins and Development
In an attempt to analyse the boundaries of thought, Destutt de Tracy, a French philosopher, coined the term ‘ideology’ and defined it as ‘the study of the origin of our ideas about the world in sense experience’ (Lafraie, 2009:6). This science of ideas was presumably based on reason and empirical evidence and its aim was to rectify the metaphysical and unscientific method utilised by De Tracy’s predecessors in their quest for knowledge. The term
‘ideology’, however, only obtained its prominence in scholarly discussions and modern day usage through the writings of Karl Marx who referred to it as a false consciousness
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determined by social conditions and constituted the ‘ideas of the 'ruling class' that upheld the class system and perpetuated exploitation’ (Heywood, 2002:42). Lafraie (2009:7) further clarifies this Marxist’s notion of ‘ideology’ to include not only the theory of knowledge but also ethics, religion and any form of consciousness. Ideology, for Marx, had a negative connotation as it symbolised a distorted consciousness that obscured social contradictions while promoting the interests of the ruling class.
Later, the rise of fascism and totalitarian regimes prompted scholars to develop an alternative view of ideology. Some scholars, for instance, Arendt and Popper posited that ideology is a form of social control that demands compliance and subordination (Heywood, 2002:43). In this regard, ideology is perceived as a closed system of thought that demands a monopoly of truth while refusing to accommodate opposing beliefs. In the context of terrorism, this is exemplified through the phenomenon of state terrorism where those in power utilise terror tactics against those who are opposed to their methods. On the other hand, ideology can also be perceived as a system of meaning where it assumes a cultural dimension by ‘rendering otherwise incomprehensible social situations meaningful, to so construe them as to make it possible to act purposefully within them’ (Geertz, 1973:220). From this brief exploration, it can be argued that ideology can serve as an effect that is positive in as much as it is a science of ideas or a notion that renders perplexing events meaningful or negative in that it perpetuates a false consciousness that promotes oppression.
In turn, this demonstrates that the notion or the definition of ideology depends on the context in which the term is utilised. This study investigates the concept of ideology in conjunction with religion. Before exploring religion as ideology, there is a need to clarify that there are some elements that are common to all conceptions of ideology regardless of the context.
These include: each ideology consists of a set of moral values that are considered as absolute;
it has an outline of the ‘good society’ in which these values would be fulfilled; there is a methodical disparagement of the current social order; and there is a strategic plan of the way change can be achieved (Lafraie, 2009:11). Consequently, according to Selinger (cited in Heywood, 2002:44), ideologies should not be considered as rigid systems of thought but rather as mobile set of ideas that overlay with each other at numerous points.
23 2.2.2 Religion as an Ideology
When de Tracy formulated the science of ideas, his primary goal was to overcome the religious and metaphysical explanations of ideas that were predominating in his time.
Juergensmeyer (2008:19) notes that in proposing the science of ideas as a replacement for religion, de Tracy unknowingly placed religion and ideology on the same level. Akin to the secular framework of thought, religious ideology not only provides a coherent picture of the world and imbues the persons with a sense of meaning but it also ‘provides the authority that gives the social and political order its reason for being’ (Juergensmeyer, 2008:20).
After analysing the different conceptions of religious ideology examined by scholars, John Plamenatz discovered the following five characteristics. Firstly, religion provides human beings with the false illusion that they have knowledge when in fact they are uninformed.
Secondly, religion becomes a means through which people overcome their fear and allow them to express themselves in the face of their inabilities to control the force of nature.
Thirdly, in giving a public and sacred character to certain actions and rituals, religious ideology serves to bind communities together. Fourthly, through its threat of punishment or promise of rewards from a higher being, religious ideology coerces individuals into observing social rules. Finally, through a religious ideology, individuals are satisfied with their condition as they are provided with a sense of direction and purpose for their future (Plamenatz, 1970:91-92).
Although the notion of peace is a central tenet in religions such as Christianity, Islam and Judaism, there is also the propensity for religion to be considered as the cause of numerous conflicts. The French philosopher and mathematician, Blaise Pascal was well aware of the susceptibility of religion when he wrote in his Pensées, ‘men (sic) never do evil so openly and contentedly as when they do it from religious conviction’ (Pascal, 1941:314). In accordance with Pascal, it should be qualified that religion is not the cause of conflict per se but rather there are individuals who justify violence while adducing religious doctrines. This theme is further explored in the next chapter where notions such as Jihad and Takfir are examined to show how militant terrorists have utilised these terms to formulate and propagate a religious ideology of violence.
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