CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2 Background
2.2.1 Why conflict?
2.2.1.2 Integral
Integral differs from obligatory in that while obligatory may be grudgingly accepted as inescapable or compulsory,18 integral is essential to wholeness.19 Briefly, the essential nature of conflict in the life of a believer will be explored in the diversity of its roles and yet unity of its profitability.
2.2.1.2.1 To understanding the Bible
First, from the standpoint of cross-cultural ministry (and any ministry for that matter), if one is going to understand the gospel message, the individual is going to experience conflict. Why?
Because the truth must confront the error within each culture. Fiedler (2015:18-19) describes the challenge in this way: “Inculturation of the Gospel does not mean to give in to African culture (or any culture) in all things, but inculturation may mean conflict for the sake of the Gospel”, and he adds: “In the process of realistic inculturation the church must not shy away from conflict for the sake of the Gospel”. So, if an individual is going to understand the gospel message in a contextualised way, they will experience conflict – it is the natural consequence of evangelism.20 Second, with reference to the life and ministry of Jesus, if one is going to understand His actions, His purpose, and His sacrifice, then a proper grasp of conflict’s role in His life is requisite.21 Portaro (1996:49) boldly announces that “Jesus went to Jerusalem to engage conflict, to enter the fray of human life and experience”. So, conflict was neither unknown nor under-utilised by Jesus; His life and ministry were characterised by it.
Finally, without a biblical understanding of conflict, then the significance of the biblical text itself can become an enigma. For example, Kingsbury refers to the role of conflict in the study of the book of Luke. He states that “at the heart of this gospel plot is the element of conflict” (1991:34).
And, as he discusses the narrative, Kingsbury highlights the fact that “as the protagonist, Jesus
18 The Oxford dictionary defines obligatory as “compulsory and not merely permissive”. See: “obligatory, adj.” OED Online, Oxford University Press, June 2020, oed.com/view/Entry/129694. Accessed 13 July 2020.
19 The Oxford dictionary defines integral as “necessary to the completeness or integrity of the whole”. See:
“integral, adj. and n.” OED Online, Oxford University Press, June 2020, oed.com/view/Entry/97344.
Accessed 13 July 2020.
20 “Evangelism is fraught with conflict”, is how Portaro (1996:79) terms it. Shawchuck (1983:7) explains it this way: “A unique characteristic of the church is that it is the world’s greatest agent of peace – yet its very message is conflict producing”. And Beeby (2000:279-280) observes that “[m]ission rarely occurs without conflict. It involves testimony of that which is potentially the cause of change; at its most typical it is designed to proclaim the truly holy to the false and pseudo-sacreds and this is a recipe for conflict
…. The missionary word of witness brings judgement first and then redemption; almost without exception the missionary word is a word of conflict.” All three aspects evangelism, Church, and missions are by nature avenues of conflict. As missionary Kevin Brosnan (2011:207) puts it, “Biblical evangelism must always highlight points of conflict between the gospel and false religious beliefs”.
21 Again, see Meyers (2018:50-52) for how Jesus used conflict.
is the one around whom the conflict of Luke’s gospel story revolves” (1991:35). In developing the gospel account, Kingsbury “reveals that intertwined in this story are three primary story lines and one secondary story line. The secondary story line is that of the people …. The primary story lines are those of Jesus, the religious authorities, and the disciples” (1991:36). In fact, “virtually from the outset of his ministry, Jesus causes division in Israel” (1991:35). In this way, as the text is explored, one ponders conflict episodes to highlight the distinctions between Jesus and one of the storylines. Kingsbury demonstrates this observation via two examples: 1) in the sharing of a meal,22 and 2) in the use of different groupings of stories.23 So, for Kingsbury, to comprehend the text of Luke, one must understand the primacy of conflict24 – about “who will rule God’s people”25 (1991:82).26
What is seen here in Luke is observed throughout the Scriptures to varying degrees. For example, Naselli elaborates on more key conflict issues as he mentions that the “conflict between brothers is a recurring motif” (2018:loc. 8526). And, in exploring the book of 1 Corinthians, he writes:
The themes that Paul discusses in 1 Corinthians can be divided into two main areas:
conflict within the congregation and compromises with the non-Christian, hedonistic values of Greco-Roman society. Five themes are connected with congregational conflict: church leaders (1:10–4:21), lawsuits (6:1–11), the Lord’s Supper (11:17–34), spiritual gifts (chs. 12–14), and Stephanas and Apollos (16:12–18). Seven themes are associated with cultural compromise: incest (5:1–13), sexual immorality (6:12–20), marriage (7:1–24), the unmarried (7:25–40), dining in pagan temples (8:1–11:1), head coverings (11:2–16), and resurrection (15:1–58)” (2018:loc. 266344).
22 Kingsbury writes that “one purpose for which Luke uses the social setting of ‘Jesus at meal’ is to describe the ongoing conflict in which Jesus becomes embroiled with the Pharisees and the scribes (lawyers)”
(1991:8).
23 Again, he elaborates: “This first encounter between Jesus and the authorities gives rise to sustained conflict: In a cycle of five controversies, Jesus clashes with the authorities over questions of authority, tradition and rules of purity, and law (5:17–6:11)” (Kingsbury, 1991:86).
24 In an interesting side note about the use of conflict, Cohen (2014:102) mentions the Jews’ tolerance of conflicting truths regarding the nature of God. So, whether one comes from a western or eastern mindset, one can still see the role of conflict in explaining, understanding, and accepting God’s Word.
25 The significance of that conflict is seen in the actions undertaken by the religious authorities as they seek to protect their role in Israel. Kingsbury describes it in this way: “To preserve their own authority as Israel’s leaders and the survival of Israel as the nation of the covenant, they conclude at last that they must destroy Jesus (19:47; 22:2). Their conflict with him, therefore, is to the death, and it holds unforeseen consequences for them” (1991:82).
26 In addition, he connects the conflict of Luke to the other Synoptic Gospels by referencing that “authority”
lies at the core of Jesus’ conflict with Israel’s religious authorities (Kingsbury, 1991:64, 81).
Paul’s entire message to Corinth is entangled with conflict. Is it unfair to say that an incorrect understanding of conflict has a negative impact upon one’s understanding of Scripture?27
2.2.1.2.2 To community in the Body of Christ
It may be difficult to think of conflict as building community, but that is exactly what it can do. This is seen first in drawing a distinction from what is causing disunity in the Church. Gager (1975:79) makes this salient point:
Quite apart from the commonsense assumption that some amount of conflict is inevitable in any form of social existence, it is now possible to argue that conflict serves a positive function in solidifying social groups and in shaping the complex symbolic and institutional apparatus needed to sustain them. Put in its strongest terms, this means that if the church had not encountered heretics, it would have created them.
In responding to that notion, White (2004:437) emphasises that “debates over heresy and orthodoxy were a necessary by-product of diversity and the growing consolidation of the movement in both social and theological terms”. So, conflict is a by-product of distinction, regardless of the breadth of that dissimilarity.
It is crucial for the Church to decide if it desires unity through conformity or unity through diversity.
Gilliam (2013) asks: “Are we after unity and harmony or a large enough space and strong enough container to hold variety and multiplicity? It seems to me that unity and harmony are boring, while variety and multiplicity are ripe with struggle, exploration, excitement and evolutionary possibilities.” Why is this the case? Gibbs explains it this way:
One cannot have community without conflict. This is true in the church as in any other area of life. In some respects the potential for conflict is even greater in the church than elsewhere. This is due to the diversity of constituencies that make up many congregations, the fact that the church is not selective but welcomes all comers, and the fact that the matters of faith and life with which the church deals represent deeply held convictions” (2000:112).
27 Dempsey and Shapiro (2011:192) observe that “in many ways the whole of Paul’s letters fueled conflict”.
Groves and Jones (2014:11) note that “the letters written to New Testament churches were almost all written in the context of conflict”. Despite these observations, Bradshaw (2015:loc. 2334) has this poignant testimony: “I have found that many congregations find comforting the fact that the majority of the letters in the Christian Scriptures were written to churches in conflict. We may not relate to the story of a particular church addressed in the letters, but we know that the early church was not idyllic and that we are not unfaithful for being in conflict.”
In addition, conflict is a sign of healthy relationships among believers. Lorrits (2018:90) in addressing racial issues, makes this point: “Any expert in the field of group dynamics will tell you that contrarian thinking and conflict are signs of health among teams”. He supplements that opinion with a pertinent application: “Conflict, not political correctness, is the sign of healthy relationships” (2018:182).
So, while it may run counter to normal considerations,28 conflict understanding is essential to the advancement of community.29 And, a unified Body of Christ has conflict as inherent to its composition and development.30
2.2.1.2.3 To personal spiritual growth
Another convention that might be counter-intuitive is the idea that spiritual growth is developed in the cauldron of difficulties.31 “Welcome to the number one growth industry for Christian congregations: conflict”, writes Bullard (2008:1).32 That is quite a statement,33 and it is echoed by others.34 “Church conflict, I’ve come to realize, may be the most effective tool God has to shape our character”, writes Preston (1999:31).35 Or, as Van Yperen describes it, “Conflict reveals our faith and character: our willingness or refusal to be the body of Christ” (2002:21).36 And, he directs
28 McKenna (2017:85) notes that “conflict is a challenge that tests spiritual maturity at its very core”. And, Goodall has an excellent perspective in summation; he writes: “Conflict is not a sign that we are out of the will of God. In fact, it might be a sign that we are doing exactly what the Lord has asked us to do.
The difficulty could be as simple as just having two different opinions – both might be right” (2006:95).
29 Looking at the life and ministries of Peter and Paul, Sanner and Trainor (2018: loc. 3970) make this insightful assertion: “The account of Peter and Paul navigating conflict provides the church a powerful example. These leaders in the burgeoning Christian community are willing to recognize the validity of each other’s ministry, as well as the unique calling that God had placed on each one: Peter’s mission to the Jews and Paul’s to the gentiles.”
30 Goodall simplifies this concept even more. He writes: “Whenever there are at least two different opinions, conflict will be present. Whenever you have two people, they will see or perceive things differently to some degree” (2006:91).
31 While his perspective is not germane to our modern understanding of conflict, it is pertinent in contrast to some of the modern understanding of conflict. Martin Luther described this conflict process in this way: “In this trial and struggle, the righteous man always resembles more a loser than a victor, for the Lord lets him be tested and assailed to his utmost limits as gold is tested in a furnace” (Luther & Ficker, 1961:189). Zahl (2007:loc. 2683) puts it this way: “But God exists in the midst of storms. That is a perspective on trouble that almost all Christians have always held. God works through conflict, even through wars.”
32 This idea resonates in the words of Bell (2001:12): “We cannot live successfully unless we learn to deal with conflict”.
33 In fact, he develops that idea further but stating that “every congregation needs a little conflict. Conflict is actually a great thing in congregations if it comes in small doses” (2008:1).
34 Robinson (2006:118-119) describes the process this way: “One could even argue that conflict is God’s tool for rubbing off our sharp edges so that we are able to develop the fruit of the Spirit”.
35 Hybels (1997:30) highlights this point especially in the life of leaders. He writes: “Handling conflict well is essentially an issue of maturity, and leading a church to community, to true biblical unity, begins with its leader”. However, this path is not easy as Garrido (2016:loc. 128) demonstrates in citing her mentor, Roger Fisher: “Conflict is a growth industry. How we wish we could put ourselves out of business.”
36 This experience is not necessarily easy to live with as Garrido (2016:135) explains: “Ultimately, what makes conflict difficult is that it gives us information about ourselves that is tough to take in. It may be
this idea further by stating that “regardless of skill or training, a leader will respond to conflict out of his or her character far more than knowledge. Conflict reveals the true character of a leader”
(2002:25).37 Kandiah laments that another path is often chosen by many believers as opposed to this development perspective:
Most of us feel awkward about this; in an attempt to avoid conflict at all costs, because it doesn’t seem very ‘Christian’, we will often allow our questions and doubts to build a wall between us and God, until so many objections have been raised that we lose sight of him altogether (2017:144).38
As a result, in opposition to this growth reasoning, Kandiah posits this striking conclusion: “If we never experience conflict in our relationship with God, the chances are we have replaced the real God with a substitute god made in our own image” (2017:121). And, he adds: “The intellectual and emotional challenges God and his nature present us with are best – in fact, will only be – unravelled in conversation and confrontation with him” (2017:144). There is no shortcut to the process of sanctification.39
Furthermore, Free enlarges upon the idea of personal spiritual growth by addressing the impact of conflict on the minister’s family. He explains that “in those cases where the conflict in a local church is handled in a timely and talented way, one of the greatest of rewards is that the children of the minister and of the members are usually not affected in a negative way” (2013:loc. 641).
While that is an extremely beneficial result,40 his conclusion is off the mark, for he sees the positive as only that the children are not ill-affected by seeing those they trust in disagreement.41 A better
explicit. Or it may be implicit. But either way, it rocks our sense of self. The only thing that can transform conflict into a spiritual journey – a way of living our discipleship fully – is if we are open to having a conversation within ourselves concerning what the conflict implies about ourselves.”
37 In practical terms, Porter (2010:12) describes this process as: “Conflict is where the rubber of faith meets the road of life”.
38 Again, Porter provides an apt description of this process: “Often faith communities assume their community should not have any conflict. This assumption leads to hiding conflicts, covering them up or stifling them” (2010:15).
39 An excellent summation is provided by Porter (2010:16): “Our attitude toward conflict is a matter of faith”.
40 In my personal experience as a pastor’s son, our family would move every time conflict arose in the church and people would oppose my dad’s position on the way forward. Since he believed that it was unscriptural to split a church, it would result in our family “splitting” from our home, our friends, and our schools. Therefore, what would be more beneficial to the pastor’s family is not hiding the disagreement with false agreements, but observing the process worked out in a godly fashion. I remember one occasion where a pastor friend came in to moderate the conflict discussion and encouraging my father afterwards on his humility, long-suffering demeanour, and patience. I was deeply moved by this (but we still ended up moving again). I wish we had known back then that “conflict needs to be seen as an opportunity for deepening understanding, not as an occasion to leave the church” (Robinson, 2006:119).
41 His statement is as follows: “In that all-important stage of their development when they are gaining insight into what is real and stable and dependable, we want very earnestly to guard them from seeing discord between the minister and unhappy members and between families in whom they have learned to trust” (2013:loc. 712).
insight would be that they should see the people they respect in disagreement and observe them responding to conflict biblically and seeking to resolve their issue.42 However, it is wonderful to see a discussion on the impact of church conflict upon the pastor’s family and ensuring that that impact is taken into consideration.43
2.2.1.2.4 To ministry
An understanding of conflict is crucial to those in ministry for several reasons. Foremost, it is one of the main causes of ministers leaving the ministry. Equipping future leaders for encountering this eventuality is one of the goals that Goodall mentions in his work.44 He writes: “Conflict is a core reason why individuals transition and/or leave the work of ministry. Without question, a solid understanding of conflict and how to solve it in a healthy manner contributes greatly to the minister’s own ministry health” (2006:7).45 Describing this notion in another way, Osterhaus et al.
(2005:loc. 1592) says: “This conflict is not a personal failure, nor is it a distraction from their calling.
It is their calling.46 But for most ministers, conflict is the result of a misunderstanding of the forces that are brought to bear as they struggle to lead their community”. And yet, too often the minister has an outlook such as that expressed by Hare (2019:loc. 466): “Conflict is the worst possible of all conditions”.
Lest believers forget the biblical standard, Park (2016:38) recalls that Paul experienced conflict in the first churches planted and in his ministry team, so the experience of conflict was prevalent from the start of the Church and its ministry. What scares ministers is that they cannot control conflict,47 yet they must learn to respond to conflict biblically. Once a minister grasps this truth, and submits to God’s method of training, that leader will begin to see conflict for what it can
42 This same thought is akin to the oft-quoted statement of Milton Sapirstein (1996?) who says, “To observe people in conflict is a necessary part of a child’s education. It helps him to understand and accept his own occasional hostilities and to realize that differing opinions need not imply an absence of love”. It is echoed by Nehrbass (2017:243) who comments that “your kids will learn healthy ways to resolve conflict by watching your example. This will prepare them for future conflict, which will inevitably come.”
43 Preston adds this insightful comment on the pastor’s spouse: “When in the throes of a church conflict, our feelings are mirrored and usually intensified in our wives” (1999:100). Much more discussion is needed on this topic.
44 Waithaka (2014:5) advocates for all collegians to have this conflict training in order to be more productive members of society.
45 In his opinion, “conflict is the number one reason pastors discontinue their ministry or change churches”
(2006:10). And this sentiment is reiterated by Poirier (2006:10) as he states that “Christ is the reason many enter the pastorate. Conflict is the reason many leave.” Further, he laments the fact that “pastors listed conflict management as the most needed training they lacked in their seminary or Bible college studies” (2006:10).
46 Hare (2019:loc. 2404) echoes that sentiment: “A lot of it is attitude. If we look at conflict resolution and problem-solving as a distraction and not worth much in terms of actual ministry, you’re right! But if we look at the process as a ministry, our attitude changes.”
47 Comparing conflict to surfing, Gibbs writes: “You can no more manage conflict than you can manage a wave when surfing. The wave is a given. It is a product of a whole weather system over which surfers have no control. The surfer’s delight is to ride the wave without becoming overwhelmed by it” (2000:112).