CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.3 Literature review
2.3.1 Secular example for comparison
was not unexpected owing to its innate characteristics191 and the lack of input on the topic from the other theological disciplines.
been to refocus them on how to think about conflict and its resolution in creative ways and how to put these thoughts into practice in the many different situations they face.
When my colleagues and I succeed in helping people develop deeper ways of thinking about conflict resolution, we contribute to a far more important change in the way they do things than we do when we simply teach them processes or steps for handling conflict.
The point that he makes is that the methodology is not as important as one’s perception of conflict.194 To bolster that point he writes from his experience:
Conflict resolution is an interactive and dynamic process. No one approach is always appropriate or effective, and no one theory has a lock on how to understand conflict.
At the heart of effective resolution is a set of constructive attitudes and good communication skills. Repeatedly, I find our attitudes toward conflict and communication determine the effectiveness of what we do (Mayer, 2000:xii).
Mayer (2000:3) also describes the conundrum that he encounters in talking with people about conflict.
We all are of two minds about conflict. We say that conflict is natural, inevitable, necessary, and normal, and that the problem is not the existence of conflict but how we handle it. But we are also loath to admit that we are in the midst of conflict ….
Somehow, to say that we are in conflict is to admit a failure and to acknowledge the existence of a situation we consider hopeless.
Therefore, his goal is for people to comprehend the character of conflict, and so he writes:
This ambivalence about conflict is rooted in the same primary challenge conflict resolvers face – coming to terms with the nature of conflict …. How we view conflict will largely determine our attitude and approach to dealing with it. Conflict may be viewed as a feeling, a disagreement, a real or perceived incompatibility of interests, inconsistent worldviews, or a set of behaviors. If we are to be effective in handling conflict, we must start with an understanding of its nature. We need tools that help us separate out the many complex interactions that make up a conflict, that help us
194 Ford (2020) makes a similar observation when he says that “conflict doesn’t have to be scary. It can actually be the catalyst that helps improve our relationships if we possess the right tools to transform it from destructive to constructive conflict.”
understand the roots of conflict, and that give us a reasonable handle on the forces that motivate the behavior of all participants, including ourselves (Mayer, 2000:3).
Therefore, to understand the nature of conflict, an individual must go back even further than simply the experience of conflict and realise the framework through which one views conflict may need to be challenged and questioned. Mayer (2000:3-4) adds:
Whether we are aware of them or not, we all enter conflict with certain assumptions about its nature. Sometimes these assumptions are very helpful to us, but at other times they are blinders that limit our ability to understand what lies behind a conflict and what alternatives exist for dealing with it. We need frameworks that expand our thinking, that challenge our assumptions, and that are practical and readily usable. As we develop our ability to understand conflict in a deeper and more powerful way, we enhance our ability to handle it effectively and in accordance with our deepest values about building peace. However, in order to simplify the task of handling complex conflicts, we need to complicate our thinking about conflict itself. [researcher’s emphasis]
In summation of his views, Mayer’s definition of conflict comprises three aspects: 1) cognitive, 2) emotional, and 3) behavioral (Mayer, 2000:4). For him, the cognitive aspect includes both subjective and objective portions. The emotional aspect cannot be minimised; he writes (Mayer, 2000:5): “And in conflict, it does not take two to tango. Often a conflict exists because one person feels in conflict with another, even though those feelings are not reciprocated by or even known to the other person”. And the behaviour “consists of the actions that we take to express our feelings, articulate our perceptions, and get our needs met in a way that has the potential for interfering with someone else’s ability to get his or her needs met” (Mayer, 2000:5). The significance of this definition is seen in the fact that “we can begin to see that it does not proceed along one simple, linear path” (Mayer, 2000:7). And finally, he views conflict in a positive light – looking at the potential.195 He advises the following:
Conflict is not in itself a bad thing. There are many reasons why it is a necessary part of the growth and development of individuals, families, communities, and societies.
Conflict can help build community, define and balance people’s needs as individuals with their needs as participants in larger systems, and help them face and address in a clear and conscious way the many difficult choices that life brings to them. Working
195 He states: “Conflict provides an opportunity for disputants to learn more about themselves, the people with whom they have a conflict, and the issues involved” (2000:92).
through a conflict can be an important bonding and growth producing experience (Mayer, 2000:24).
Mayer’s advice to those experiencing conflict is insightful: “There is no single correct response to conflict, but that does not mean that there are not wise and unwise responses to any particular conflict” (2000:25). And so, he observes the following:
How people handle conflict is basic to whom they are, to how they try to make their way in life, and to how they relate to others. People’s approach to conflict derives not only from what they have been taught about conflict and how they have experienced it but also from their personalities, their culture, and their particular role in a dispute (Mayer, 2000:26).196
And so, he warns: “Individuals’ values and beliefs about conflict often affect their behavior as much as do their concerns about the issues causing the conflict197 .… The most influential beliefs deal with whether conflict is acceptable, how people should behave in conflict, and what kinds of outcomes are possible or acceptable” (Mayer, 2000:26).198
So much of what he writes resonates with this researcher, and its veracity will be obliquely considered in the exegetical examination of Romans 12-16. Mayer’s example at least provides a voice for the status of the world’s understanding of conflict by which a comparison may be drawn with what is to follow. Obviously, the goal for a believer is to fall in line with what God has to say about conflict, and this comparison is not to negate that emphasis, but simply to show where the world stands in comparison to what Christians understand and with what God’s Word declares.
The positive aspect of Mayer’s discussion is that it is clear, concise, consistent, provides definition and context, while showing development of his theories, which is also one of the goals for this development of a BTOC. An area in which he errs is in the sinful nature of man that can lead to shocking and maniacal responses to conflict. That point is not taken into consideration as God’s metanarrative is not taken into account. So, the insertion of Mayer’s work at this point is for
196 As an example, Campbell and Clarke (2017:21), speaking in a management context, state that “it’s not lack of talent that causes team mediocrity. It’s lack of conflict [authors’ emphasis]”. Over forty years ago, Johnson (1978:247) made this remark: “It is not the presence of conflict that causes chaos and disaster, but the harmful and ineffective way it is managed. It is the lack of skills in managing conflict that leads to problems. When conflicts are skillfully managed, they are of value.”
197 Stovall and Hull (2016: loc. 1164) describe it in this fashion: “Much of the conflict, strife, and war that our world encounters comes more from diverse perspectives than actual disagreement”.
198 Mayer makes this observation of viewpoints of conflict: “Some people believe that conflict is a natural part of their lives and that it is perfectly acceptable to be in conflict …. For others, conflict is a sign of failure, or personal, organizational, or societal malfunction …. A related issue is whether people believe there can be a conflict in which no one is wrong” (2000:27).
illustrative purposes: 1) in demonstrating where the world’s understanding of conflict stands, and 2) providing an example of precision in communicating that understanding.