CHAPTER!
1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW
Numerous authors have commented a lot about onomastics, we shall therefore in this section focus on the contributions made by Koopman (1979a, 1979b, 1983,1987a, 1987b, 1989, 1991,2000), Bryant (1929,1939,1949, 1965), Krige (1950), Mzolo (1977) and Ngubane (1991, 1998, 2000). Seemingly, the most substantial contribution has been made by Koopman in his extensive study of linguistic onomastics in Zulu. The same is seen in Ngubane (1991, 1998, 2000) theses, which confinns thorough research in the same field of study. Bryant (1929, 1949) on one hand concentrated on the history of different Nguni tribes with special reference to the Shangase clan and other related clans, where, though a lot has been corrected through personal experiences of the informants, Bryant has covered a broader ground in pioneering work in history and genealogy of the Shangase clan, Krige (1950) on the other hand, investigated more about rites de passage, in investigation mostly done in Chapter 2 of this thesis, while Mzolo (1977)
concentrated on personal praises which are closely related to those of "aMakhosi,"
princes and heroes of the Shangase clan.
Koopman (1987a: 136) states that he has been working on Zulu names since 1974. He became interested in them while employed in the then Municipality Bantu Administration's Labour Office in Durban and his Honours dissertation in 1975 was on the linguistic aspect of Zulu names and other modes of address e.g. Mr. Mkhize's personal name is "Simanga" (strange occurrence) but his children call him "uBaba"
(father) and his wife call him "uBaba kalabulani" (Jabulani's father). Mkhize's friends call him "Mango" and by other people he is called "Mkhize" 0 Khabazela or Mavovo.
May be at work his employers call hil!1 "Samuel." Koopman (1979a: 67) says that when he was working first in the influx control and then in KwaMashu Township, he collected a large number of Zulu names of different kinds. Koopman made a subsequent analysis of the body of names which showed that there are several linguistic features, peculiar to Zulu names, distinguishing between names and common nouns, and male and female names e.g. home name - Sifiso (wish), English name - Jolin, address name - Shuku, nickname - Senzi.
Koopman (1979a:72) further argues that Doke's diachronic approach that the treatment . of noun with morphemes -no-, -so-, -ma-, are compound nouns is confusing. Koopman says that these words like uNolwandle, uMantombi, UMaMkhize and uSomandla are, in their internal structure, totally unlike the compound nouns and names, and, therefore, declares the formatives -so-, -no-, -ma- class fa formatives while Xala (1996:92) calls them "Extra Morphemes." Koopman went on to say that the morphemes -so- and -ma- likewise, are used only as sex markers in the formation of names.
Koopman (1979b:154) refers to uninflected male and female names derived from nouns.
MALE NAMES
uMuntu < umuntu CL 1 "person"
uMusa uJubane
<
<
FEMALE NAMES uNtombi <
uGugu <
uMntwana <
umusa ijubane
intombi igugu umntwana
CL3 "mercy"
CL5 "speed" etc
CL9 "girl"
CL5 "treasure"
CL 1 "child"
He further indicates that male names are unrestricted while female names are strictly derived from nouns that are feminine in meaning.
Koopman (1989:32) explained a wide variety of underlying reasons for personal names to be given in various parts of Africa. These include:
a) A family name handed down - commemorating a deceased relative. b) A reference to physical features of the child at birth.
c) The circumstances of the birth: what happened when birth was given.
d) Names referring to state of mind.
e) Quarrelling and friction within the family.
£) If a child is born on a certain market day.
g) Name which refers to birth order and sex.
h) Names referring to structure of the family sex of child or twins.
The role of God in the birth of a child, whether as activity by the family's ancestral spirits or see the hand of God in the birth of a child, e.g. "Sandlasenkosi" (the hand of God).
That the personal names are derived from other parts of speech, Koopman (1991:334) deals with the clan names, nouns by noun class. Koopman indicates that when all words deriving the personal names are formed, they all belong to class fa or u- / 0- class, the class into which all personal names in Zulu are found, and this class can be considered the primary or basic form of Zulu clan names. The class fa prefix as with personal
names, is used as a secondary prefix (See Koopman 1979:69). Koopman further explains how the prefixes work hand in hand to produce simple, and composite noun prefixes. (See also Xala 1996:115 &126).
Furthermore, Koopman, (2002), managed to define, explain and give the historical derivation of the term "onomastics," Koopman (2002:8-9). Kooopman further deals with anthroponymy (personal names) where he looks at the Zulu names and other forms of address, patronyms which deal with names derived from the name of a father or ancestor, and teknonyms which looks at the married man or woman addressed as father of so and so or mother of so and so, Koopman (2002:27-28).
Referring to Rev. Dr. A.T. Bryant (1929,1939,1949), he was born in London on 26th February 1865. Bryant was educated at the Birbeck Literary and Scientific Institute, a college which later came to be affiliated with the University of London. In1883, Dr.
Bryant migrated to Natal where he associated himself with the then recently established Mission Station at Marianhill. In 1887, he visited Europe and was ordained as priest at the church ofSt. John of Lateran (the Cathedral church of Rome) (See Bryant 1949:ix).
On his return to South Africa, he returned to Zululand in 1886. He was given permission by the British Resident to establish a Mission Station on the Ongoye Range between the Mlalazi and Mhlathuze Rivers. He lived among the Zulus and acquired much information which is contained in his books. In 1820, he was appointed Lecturer in Bantu Studies in the Wits University. He wrote "Olden Times in Zululand and Natal," which was published in 1929. In 1935, he completed another book titled "The Zulu People," which was published in 1949.
"The 1929 Olden Times in Zululand and Natal," is a historical survey of the tribes of
Natal and Zululand. "The 1949 "The Zulu People" bases its chapters on the discussion of Zulu civilization which is the life of the Zulu people before the whiteman came i.e.
until the year 1900, (Bryant 1929:xii).
According to Bryant (1949:1), the Zulu set out from Nyanzaland 500 years ago, while again according to Bryant (1929:479) the Shangases and their related tribes are said to have come from Tongaland under the leadership of "Vurnizitha," who later had his two sons Mkheshane and Ngcobo both taking after him his chieftainship on separate tribal areas. Bryant's 1929 volume offered to the public a complete work on the early History of the Eastern-Nguni Bantu. It deals solely with their Tribal History, i.e. with the political state and activities of each such clan, in particular, at the earliest period (cI750- 1828) just prior to the Zulu King Shaka, (See Bryant 1929: vii). For the History of the Shangase and other related tribes, their History is contained in Bryant (1929:479-498).
The genealogy tree of Vumizitha's clans i.e. Ngcobo and Mkheshane (Shangase) clans, Dingila (Nyuswa and Qadi clans), Ngongoma clan and Wosiyana (Nzama) clans are displayed in his book on the page facing page 482. Bryant (1929:482) on the genealogy tree page, states that generally speaking, nothing is certain beyond the sixth or seventh generation back. In the genealogy tree prepared for specifically for this thesis, all of the Shangase clans has been twisted by Bryant (1929) but it has now been put right through thorough research. (See Table 1 in chapter 4 of this thesis).
Krige is the author and a well-known South African Anthropologist who has presented an investigation on Zulu culture and societal customs of the most romantic and best- known South African tribe, largely as it was before the impact of Western civilization.
He has collected information about Zulu Culture from scattered material contained in travellers' accounts, missionary reports, periodicals of all sorts, and by further independent enquiry.
In Chapter 2, Krige (1950:4-22) deals with the Zulu history, that is, the occupation of Natal by the Bantu. The rise of the Mthethwa and Ndwandwe powers - Shaka and his reorganization of the Zulu Kingdom. Krige (1950:23) deals with the Kinship system and social organization of the Zulus which includes behavior patterns within the family,
extension of the behaviour patterns towards the father to include his relations, relatives - in-law of the wife and the husband, etc. Krige (1950:39) further outlines, under the Zulu Village - food and narcotics, the status of wives as "iNdlunkulu" (first house), iKhohlo (second house), and iQadi (third house), the arrangement of a village, village life, and division of meat - beer.
Krige (1950:61) deals with birth and childhood, that is, observances during pregnancy, the birth, strengthening of the child, period of seclusion, etc. Krige (1950:68) emphasizes that on birth of a child, both mother and child are isolated for a certain period, usually until the navel string (inkaba) falls off. Bryant (1949:613) agrees with Krige when he says that the placenta (urnzanyana) with the navel - cord (inkaba) is buried one foot deep, there within the hut, alongside the hut well near where the child was born, she remains isolated (ukugoya) for five days if it is a girl and for eight days if it is a boy. When the mother is still in isolation both Krige (1950:68) and Bryant (1949:613) agree that the mother abstains from eating clotted - milk (Amasi) and wears
"Umkhanzi"· for a certain period and that she later wears "isifociya" or grass-plaited waist belt. The above makes us understand that the two authors agree on certain issues regarding births.
The transition from childhood to adulthood is marked by certain rites de passage which are celebrated through ceremonies. Krige (1950:81) refers us to Ear-piercing ceremony (ukuqhambusa), which is celebrated by both boys and girls. This is followed by the Puberty ceremony (umkhosi wokuthomba), which is celebrated by both boys and girls Krige (1950:87-106), and Bryant (1949"649-650) and Bryant (1929:480) have clearly explained the puberty ceremony. The enrolment to tribal regiment for boys of the same age-set group up to form a regiment which is given a name by iNkosi in a tribal ceremony, for instance, the First Fruit Ceremony where a bull is strangled by the newly enrolled regiment. Krige (1950: 1 06-117) generally discusses this topic while in this thesis it is handled with special reference to the Shangase clan.
Krige (1950: 120-150) successfully discusses the principles underlying the Zulu Marriage. Ceremony which start from informal betrothal (ukuqoma) marrIage negotiation, formal betrothal (ukugana), the "lobolo" (bridal price), mamage preparations to marriage ceremony. After marriage, he discusses death and burial ceremonies which are followed by purification ceremony. After marriage he discusses death and burial ceremonies, which are followed by purification ceremony (ihlambo), which is celebrated twice in case of iNkosi, and the return dead home ceremony (ukubuyisa), Krige (1950:159-175).
Krige (1950:280-296) also refers to uNkulunkulu (uMvelinqangi) as the Creator or First Cause who broke off from the "bed of reed" and then all men broke off too. Krige is also referring to "uHlanga" (the bed of reed) and "amaThongo" (spiritual ancestors) and their worship and propitiation. When Krige (1950:282) is referring to "Heaven", she does that in collaboration with iNkosazana" -"uNomkhubulwana" - The Rain Princess - The princess of Heavens or the Princess of the Com, the one who taught the Ngunis how to brew Zulu beer, etc.
Krige (1950) is one of the most important authors whose prowess is highly congratulated . for she has brought back lost and forgotten knowledge of the historical past, fresh in our
minds, so that for those who have read his work can survive better and do things positively when observing the rites de passage.
Mzolo (1977:1-22) clearly explains the difference between the family which is the basic unit of Zulu society consisting of a man as husband, and a woman as his wife, and the clan as the expansion of the family which goes on generation after generation claiming descent to the same ancestor. The clan name is usually taken to be the name of the clans founder, which in this thesis, Shangase is the clan name and founder of the Shangase tribe. Furthermore, he says the tribe is the mUltiplication of family clans and "iNkosi" as the head who administer the affairs of the people. The nation is the combination of different tribes to form e.g. a "Zulu Nation".
Mzolo (1977 :23-70) successfully discusses the types of praises such as the Royal family personal praises and personal praises of ordinary people. He further discusses the linguistic features of personal praises such as tense, vowels, vocatives etc. He linguistically analyses the personal praises. (In chapter 3, Mzolo (1977:71-122) specifically deals with clan praises and praising.
His chapter 4, "the concept of clan praises", is analysed meaningfully and gives a real flow of his work. In chapter 3 again, he correctly shows a connection between praises and rites de passage because when celebrating the different ceremonies such as the formal betrothal, address names are mentioned, at marriages personal praises and personal names of ancestors are mentioned, and infact, at the start of each ceremony personal names and personal praises of ancestors and address names are important.
Mzolo (1977) is therefore congratulated for his contribution in the study of Nguni Clan Praises.
Ngubane's (1998) dissertation attempts to identify the three dialects found in the Ingwavuma district of Northem Zululand, namely, Tembe, Ngwavuma and Gonde. His chapter 1 serves as a general introduction of the study and looks at some linguistic concepts necessary for placing the research in its proper theoretical perspective.
Ngubane (1998:6 and 7) indicates a difference between Standard Zulu (SZ) and Gondo (Go) and he further indicates how phonetical, morphological and lexical differences are between SZ. and Go. In the examples given by him on page 7, he eventually shows that Gonde has many differences than both Zulu and Swati, although Gonde seems closer to Swati than to Zulu.
Ngubane (1998) looks at historical background of the Ngunis and the people of the Ingwavuma district. Clans falling into the limitations of this research are the Mathenjwa's,. Nyawo's, Mngomezulu's and Tembe's. Ngubane (1998:26) gives us a brief history of the Nguni people and the explanation of Pure-Ngunis, Sutu-Ngunis and
Tekela-Ngunis as Lala. (See also Bryant 1929:313). The historical and genealogical background of different Ingwavuma tribes is found from page 31-43 and is clearly discussed.
Chapter 3 deals with the phonetic systems of the three northern dialects in order to highlight differences and similarities. Ngubane (1998:45-69) finds a clear description of phonetic sounds found in IP A vowel charts and how these are described. The Ingwavuma dialect is also discussed from page 59 to page 67. In chapter 4 a phonological comparison which is based on Ownby's Core Vocabulary List (1986) and on a 200 social usage words list collected from during research is presented in chapter 5 which looks at the phonological processes of the three dialects. He very well discusses the following phonetical processes.
a) Assimilation -A process whereby different neighbouring sounds become alike.
b) Assonance -the pronunciation of similar vowels in a word following one another which occurs in ideophones.
c) Consonantalization - this is also a process of formation. Khumalo (1987) in Msimang (1989:203) refers to this process as Vowel/Glide Realisation. Chapter 6 presents a few morphological characteristics of the three dialects such as the Noun Class System, the Absolute Pronoun, Formation of DemonstratIve and Nominal Inflections. These topics apply in all the three dialects.
Ngubane (2000) deals with onomastics which is a SCIence of naming with special reference to personal naming practices. In this thesis Ngubane (2000) shows that as in previous times of major social and historical change, naming practices among the Zulus have undergone significant changes since the advert in 1994 of a democratic government in South Africa. Ngubane (2000:2) indicates that the primary aim of naming is to prevent one person being confused with another. Personal names are, therefore, primarily used to identify people and it is common practice to name people in their own language so that it is easy for the people.
In chapter 2 Ngubane very well deals with the naming practice amongst Western and African peoples. Defining onomestics as the science of naming has made readers of this thesis very clearer as to what is exactly meant by the term "ONOMASTICS". The connection between the name bearer, name giver and society and culture are simply put to make the concept of onomastics clearer. Ngubane (2000:31-76) when dealing with the personal naming practices, discusses the following sub-themes:
a) Naming people -Western personal naming practices - page 31.
b) African naming practice - Traditional personal naming practices on the African Continent, Common Nguni - Specific naming practices, and
c) Zulu - specific naming practices - This whole concept makes it clear as to what naming practices are about.
Ngubane (2000:90) constitutes an analytical discussion of the data gathered in both rural and urban areas in K waZulu-Natal during 1998 and 1999. When dealing with this section of his thesis, N gubane did not fail himself by not referring to the work of earlier researchers such as Suzman (1994), Koopman 1986 in particular; Dickens (1985) and Xaba (1993). The examples that Ngubane gives in chapter 4 from page 94 to page 141 vividly corresponds with what is exactly discussed and the art of putting it is superlative.
In chapter 5, Ngubane finally deals with the findings on current trends in Zulu naming practices, such as birth practices in rural areas, birth records in Durban hospitals, the way of shifts in naming practices among the poor urban and rural communities.