5.2 Historical Review of Successful Empires in Southern Africa
5.2.1 The Mutapa State
The precise relationship between the Great Zimbabwe state and its successor, the Mutapa State, remains obscure and so too is the actual story of how the Mutapa State was founded (Mudenge, 2011:1). Ngara (2009: 4), argued that the founders of the Mutapa state were of the Shona group and were both culturally and politically connected to the builders of the Great Zimbabwe. According to Mudenge (2011:1) historians have reconstructed a history of the Mutapa dynasty from the founder Nyatsimba Mutota (c.1430 – c.1480) to the last King ChiokoDambamupute (1887–1902). Therefore the dynasty is believed to have lasted in different forms for more than five hundred years. This chapter seeks to analyse the Mutapa Kingdom (or Mutapa State) as a dynasty without focusing on a specific king but with the broad aim of analyzing the leadership resources at play which sustained the Mutapa polity for over five hundred years in the face of concerted efforts by the colonial metropoles to access and control the indigenous land and natural resources. The Mutapa Dynasty ruled the Shona as well as non-Shona groups for most of its existence, and at the end of the dynasty’s lifespan the non-Shona predominated. Also known as Mwene Mutapa or Mhunhu Mutapa, the empire may not be compared to present day European empires in technology, however, its craftsmen produced high quality artifacts (Katrii Pohjolainen Yap, 2001; 23). Knowledge of this empire, which was built up through commerce more so than conquest, given that trade was carefully regulated with set measurements and standards to ensure fairness, can help to construct a balanced story of where, when and how human societies have flourished (New World Encyclopedia, 2012: 1).
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Examining the Mutapa state from a power and leadership perspective, a number of traditional African leadership themes can be explored in respect of lessons that can be drawn from this empire and its dynasty. They manifest in the face of relations between the king and provincial leaders that is delegation and devolution of powers, relations with foreign countries, the role of the economy in stable state development, the centrality of the military as an insurance for security and the King’s involvement in people’s affairs among others. According to Ngara, (2009:5), the Mutapas seem to have developed an interesting approach to leadership. They seem to have realized the benefits of giving relative freedom to the citizens and to regional governors, which style seems to have earned them the loyalty of both vassals and ordinary citizens. With the ability to establish positive interpersonal relations and connections, the king was able to motivate provincial leaders and delegates through trust, respect, and consideration.
The New World Encyclopedia notes (2012: 3), the Mutapa did not intervene needlessly in the lives of his subjects. He appears to have realized that if the people enjoyed a reasonable standard and a stable society, their loyalty could be expected. Whereas regional governors were expected to pay taxes to the King in the form of cattle and other forms of gifts and there was give and take with the King recognizing the importance of the principle of interdependence since gifts were also given by the King to officials and regional governors to ensure their loyalty. Effective delegation by the Mutapa kings also encouraged an open exchange of ideas and problem perspectives. This is what Chanaiwa in the New World Encyclopedia (2012) refers to as the “charisma, well-being and political wisdom of the Mutapa. This, according to Ngara (2009:7), can be characterized as a soft way to engage and influence followers, gaining their loyalty, not through brute force, but by inspiring them.
The Mutapa inculcated a sense of collective identity of the kingdom and inspired his officials and regional governors, challenging them to take great ownership for their work and he understood their strengths and weaknesses so he could align them with duties that optimized their performance. Similarly, Dei et al (2016) argue that the ethical culture of a group may stagnate where leadership attitudes and actions are diametrically opposite. In other words, leaders of groups who are not concerned with the ethical culture of the group render those group values insignificant (Ferrell, Fraedeich, and Ferrell, 2011). For this reason, ethical leadership strives to actively serve as role models for the core values of the group. In this way, the Chief Executive Officer or the leader of the group becomes the embodiment of the values of the group. The implication is that the core values of a group become active and
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effective when leaders live them out. Ethical leaders attract the respect of their followers by living out the values of the group.
In the Mutapa state, trust and mutual respect endeared the King to the Provincial leaders and his officials and therefore it is evident that effective leaders do not rely solely on hard power of their formal positions to influence others. Soft power includes expert power and referent power, which are based on personal characteristics and interpersonal relationships more than on a position of authority. Clearly, according to Boehme (1989:167), this style of leadership is different from the leadership of domination where followers follow and obey the leader not out of conviction, but out of fear. This therefore allows both the leader and the followers to work together to achieve the desired community goals.
Furthermore, a matter to which scholars do not seem to attach the importance it deserves is the fact that the Mutapa was personally involved in solving people’s problems brought to him through rule by consensus. The Mutapa did not live on an ivory tower, he was a King on account of the people, a servant of the people. The king depended on the people just as much as the people depended on the king. Through interdependence, the leader or king realized that leadership is interaction with the people, consultation with and listening to the people or the people’s representatives (Katrii Pohjolainen Yap, 2001: 23). According to Masango (2002:712) during one of the Mutapa’s several holidays, the King would not take leave, but would be very busy holding audiences (popularly known as dare) to solve the problems brought before him. This is a demonstration of servant leadership in the Mutapa Kingdom since the king was involved in the affairs of his people and was personally involved in interacting with them and listening to their problems even if it meant that he had to forego his personal pleasure. In light of this it can be argued that the governance system of the Mutapa state was so transparent and highly inclusive, reflective of an ethical leadership culture.
In support of this, it can be noted that ethical leadership builds a corporate culture that encourages “openness, freedom to express ideas, and the ability to question conduct” (Ferrell, Fraedeich, and Ferrell, 2011:143). As such, the leader’s conduct is brought under the scrutiny of his followers. Such an attitude of leadership fosters a working environment in which relevant information flows smoothly. In such environment, members within a group may be free to comment on the operations of the group as well as the conduct of the leadership.
Clearly, not every member of the dynasty would have performed the duties to the same level
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as the best of them, but the principle was there, and it appears that some Mutapas were able to elicit admiration and loyalty from people.
In addition, one can infer that to some extent the best of the Mutapa could incite appreciation and regard in the hearts and minds of ordinary subject when they held long day audiences about seven times every month attempting to take care of issues brought before them. This shows that the Mutapas had their citizens at heart a practice that is quickly dwindling and fading off in the present day governance systems where the leaders are much more concerned about themselves (their interests) at the expense of the group or national agenda. As Ngara (2009:9) observes,
this is a situation where the Mutapa appears to have practiced the ideology of what Robert Greenleaf (1977) has called the servant first type of leader rather than the leader first type, the difference being that the servant first type of leader is motivated, not by the ambition to lead, but by the desire to serve, whereas for the leader first type, service may be incidental to the ambition for power or wealth. The practice of the Mutapa in this regard was also a practical demonstration of the leader placing himself at the service of the people in the true spirit of Ubuntu/ hunhu based ethical leadership.
Whilst the above was a generalization of life in the Mutapa state it is a matter of critical importance to closely examine the leadership and power dynamics at play given its long history of survival which spanned close to five centuries. This was of course despite the fact of opposition from rival empires and also the Portuguese who wanted to control land and trade in commodities which include among others gold, iron, copper and ivory. The state rose, stabilized and ultimately disappeared from the map and the section will attempt to investigate the powers and leadership resources which sustained it for so long and the reasons for decline.
5.2.1.2 Territory and Natural resources
The Mwene Mutapa (Lord of Conquering) occupied the fertile lands in the Northern part of present day Zimbabwe stretching in the Zambezi valley. This territory was characterized by fertile soils, high rainfall patterns, endowed with resources such as gold, copper, iron and wild life especially the elephant famous for its ivory. Control of these resources provided a firm base for the power and authority of the king. Later struggles with the Portuguese and other rival emergent kings was a result of competition for control of these resources. The Portuguese were persistent for very long in their quest to control the Mutapa state, a feat they finally achieved around 1698. The centrality of land and resources to power and political discourse in the Mutapa state became an unresolved question which later led to the 1st and 2nd
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Chimurenga wars in Zimbabwe. The lesson for future leadership is that a nation must never surrender their resources no matter the cost. The Biblical story of Naboth in 1 Kings 21 sees Naboth refusing to surrender his inheritance to the king and sacrificed his life for it. The moral of the story is that resources are at the center of leadership and power resources which must be utilized guarantee the good life for followers. You lose the resource and you lose the power and justification to lead.
5.2.1.3 Ideology Religion and Identity
The mythology of the Mutapa state paints a picture of a deeply ideological, religious and closely knit polity. The Tovela, Mwari or God the Almighty was at the centre of the Mutapa religion which was practiced through ritual in all life undertakings. Tovela was the Lord of everything under the sun and was associated with appropriating supernatural powers to those who believed. According to Hodza and Fortune 1979:217, Bhina 1987, Bullock 1927 and Huffman 1996, spirituality was so central that kings were installed with spiritual concurrence and both leaders and followers had to enter into a covenantal relationship where the king ruled humanely according to Tovela’s dictates and the followers were to reciprocate by unquestioning homage. Religion gave the kings power and assurance to followers creating a harmonious relationship governed by unity through totems and other related artefacts of identity. Religion was a source of power and charisma for rulers then and it was later to become a power during the 1st and 2nd Chimurenga in Zimbabwe.
5.2.1.4 The Military Dimension
Whilst there is no adequate documentation on the military history of the Mutapa state, available information though Scant, confirms that the military were the underwriters of the security, stability and strategic projection of the Mutapa state. Defence, territorial expansion and protection of resources were all indispensable military functions. Through mobilization by talking drums and mythical powers of invisibility, the military were a feared outfit which guaranteed security of the state. The Mutapa armies dealt with rebellion attempts and repeated Portuguese onslaughts up to the end and decline of the empire when their power dissipated for various reasons.
5.2.1.5 Governance
The strength of the Mutapa state was in dynamic devolution. Whilst power was devolved there were statutory obligations for Tributary states to pay taxes and royalties to the central government whilst the centre also had a responsibility for the safety of the vassal parties.
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Defeat by the Portuguese, upheavals in ideology and religion after the conversion of the Mutapa to Christianity, depletion of natural resources and internal rebellion weakened the Mutapa state leading to its decline. The conversion of the Mutapa to Christianity had such a profound effect which negatively culminated in an entire polity losing its moral compass, identity and a sense of direction. It is proving difficult to find a common religious resource and ideology around which the African people can be rallied today. Resultantly many a people are living a duality of Christianity by the day and traditionalism by night. What it then amounts to is a whole generation living a false identity which is ultimately retrogressive.