Predominant Western thoughts on early leadership theories focused on the qualities that distinguished between leaders and followers. On the other hand the predominant discourse in contemporary Africa is gravitating towards reconstructing Ubuntu leadership with focus on community and humanistic values. Whilst leadership theories are not exhaustive and are continually evolving, the common feature is that they all want to expose the full range of attributes and abilities which should be available to leadership. The paragraphs will unbundle some of the prevalent leadership theories which have profoundly influenced the discourse of ethical leadership.
2.3.1 Trait theories
With foundations in the Great man theories which emphasized that leaders where born and not made. Trait theories have been studied, developed and refined for over a century. The main object has been to find what distinguishes leaders from non-leaders (Ban 1990; Jago 1982). Whilst the debate on leadership traits tendered to die because of observed weaknesses it has resurged as a result of contemporary political developments, especially the rise from obscurity of people like Barrack Obama to the Presidency of the United States of America as well as the meteoric rise of charismatic pastors and prophets who have established followerships running into millions across the globe. These include the likes of TB Joshua from Nigeria and upcoming Emmanuel Makandiwa from Zimbabwe. All these Christian Pentecostal leaders have an extraordinary pull effect uncommon among their followers and hence the interest in what causes people to follow these leaders. A study by Stogill identified common traits in leaders as follows,
Drive for responsibility and task completion, Vigorous persistence in pursuit of goals, Risk taking and originality in problem solving, Drive and initiative, Willingness to take consequences, Readiness to absorb stress, frustration and delay, Ability to influence other peoples’ behavior (Cited in Northouse 2010: 45)
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Resulting from further studies, major traits commonly identified were summarized as intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity and sociability. Whilst these traits can be found in any person it is more about how they are exploited to influence the course of history and events that differentiates leaders and non-leaders. Whilst the trait approach has enjoyed wide scholarly followership, it has been criticized for overemphasis on the role of the leader whilst ignoring the role of followers and influences of situational factors which too can have a profound effect on leadership outcomes.
2.3.2 Skills Leadership theory
More often it has been noted that the paralysis of development in Africa emanates from the facts that those with ideas and knowledge have no power and those with power having no idea nor knowledge. Since leaders have the power which they must exploit to move institutions forward they too need skills, abilities and knowledge. This primarily is the Basic premise of the skills leadership theory which postulate that in order for leaders to be successful they need technical, human and conceptual skills. Based on field research, in administration and observation of executives in the work place, (Katz 1955: 34) suggested that effective leadership depends on three basic skills which are emergent and learned in a conscious developmental effort. The skills as cited above are Technical in the sense that they imply being knowledgeable and proficient in specific types of work or activities. Technical skills are vital especially in a fast changing technologically developing world. Leaders need a basic level of competence in basic life skill technologies in order to cope and be on the same plane with followers. They also need sharpened human and people skills in order to mobilise and motivate followers towards mission or goal accomplishment. Human skill is the ability to work with people and not things (Northouse 2010: 65). According to Kartz (1955: 34) cited in Northouse (2010), human skill are people skills and abilities that help a leader to work effectively with followers, peers, superiors and stakeholders to accomplish organisational goals. Lastly, leaders need conceptual skills which enable them to think big and integrate ideas with technical and human capability in a synchronized.
2.3.3 Behavioral Leadership theory
First formulated by researchers from Ohio state and Michigan Universities and later reported in the works of Blake and Mouton (1964, 1978, 1985) the behavioral approach seeks to integrate the elements of task orientation, relationship management and leadership practice. It
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emphasizes on what leaders do and how they act as they strive to make sense of achieving successful outcomes by utilizing available resources.
2.3.4 Situational Leadership Theory
Emanating from the works of scholars in the mould of, Hersey, Blanchard, Zigarhi and Helson to name a few, the situational approach focuses on leadership in situations. “The premise of the theory is that different situations demand different kinds of leadership. From this perspective, to be an effective leader requires that a person adapt his or her style to the demands of different situations” (Northouse, 2010: 118). The situational approach stresses the existence of both a directive and supportive function of leadership based on the competency levels of followers. The Situational leadership continuum ranges from delegation, supporting, coaching and directing and the degree and emphasis of the chosen style is dependent on many variables which include the nature of the task, the time limitations, the resources available, the skill levels of the followers or team members and the degree of motivation in both leaders and followers. In essence the bottom line in situation theory is that leadership is not a one size fits all. Leadership has to be adaptable, practical, rational, flexible and responsive to changing situations in the workplace environment.
2.3.5 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is concerned with the ability to inspire followers to accomplish great things (Alan Bryman et al, 1992: 1).According to Northouse,
Transformational leadership is a process that changes and transforms people. It is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals. It includes assessing followers’
motives, satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings. Transformational leadership involves an exceptional form of influence that moves followers to accomplish more than what is usually expected of them. It is a process that often incorporates charismatic and visionary leadership (Northouse 2013: 185).
According to MacGregor Burns, the concept of transformational leadership tries to establish the symbiotic between the leader, followers and the vision of the organisation. According to Burns Transformational leadership is
…the process whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raise the level of motivation and modality in both the leader and follower. Significant factors which are unique to Transformational leadership include idealized influence and charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration (Burns 1978: 20).
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Idealised influence which is often associated with charisma is the emotional component of leadership (Antonokis 2013). It is associated with leaders who act as role models for followers with a high degree of moral and ethical conduct. Whilst charisma is religiously understood as a natural gift from God, its strong features are seen in terms of self-motivated conviction to a cause. When people are convinced that they can become the key drivers for moving the vision of the organization forward, such conviction arises from how the leader motivates his or her followers. Mandela and Mahatma Gandhi are examples of extra-ordinary charismatic leaders who taught and convinced the world that love, non-violence and reconciliation could overcome all forms of adversity.
Inspirational motivation is usually inherent in leaders who communicate and inspire their followers to aim for higher outcomes in their day to day organizational commitments.
Through emotional appeals, followers become committed to and share in the organizational vision because followers are usually motivated to do more than the call of duty in a quest to surpass organizational targets. Intellectual stimulation challenges both leaders and followers to be creative, innovative and it nurtures the urge to create change as well as to challenge the status quo. Further, it is presumed by scholars that this intellectual stimulation can only be possible if leaders consider and support individuals in pursuit of group goals. Put in a nutshell, transformational leadership through idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration provides the necessary ingredients for achieving performance beyond expectation (Bass 1997:133; 1998: 5; Bass & Riggio 2006: 6- 7).
Whilst the above has been a general scan and panoramic view of classical leadership theories, the list is not exhaustive, the scope is not limited and the content is only cursory but it is hoped that the object of highlighting the importance of theory as a guide to leadership practices has been achieved. The next section will look at leadership theory from the African perspective as seen through the lenses of Ubuntu.
2.3.6 Ubuntu Centered Leadership
Murmur Gaddafi was shot, killed, dragged in the streets (Tripoli) and his lifeless body displayed in a cabinet for all and sundry to see, spit at and scorn before being buried at some unmarked obscure desert location by American soldiers. In typical same fashion Osama Bin Laden was killed and his lifeless body was thrown into the sea to feed sharks and predators.
The above cited acts are a typical manifestation of a growing rotten society on the verge of
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moral insanity and decay which can only be restored through a shift to the virtues of Ubuntu.
The Ubuntu philosophy and way of life which Bishop Desmond Tutu opined as the possible African gift to the world offers a pragmatic form of leadership theory which can have universal appeal because of its focus on magnanimity and equality in human worth irrespective of diversity.
The meaning of Ubuntu is humaneness. The presumption is that a human being is only human because of other humans. In this regard, the aphorism Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu means that a person is a person through other persons. The sense of community communal common belonging, interconnectedness and interdependence are indispensable to the conceptualizion of Ubuntu. Ubuntu leadership compels leaders to be torch bearers in fostering harmony amongst individuals and communities, leading in the ethical core practicing empathy and above all sharing common goals in communities through consultation and dialogue. Ubuntu leadership is an interactive process and what in the West is now emerging as Relational, Charismatic and Transformative leadership theories were long practiced in African traditional leadership through Ubuntu.
Ubuntu leadership will find room for application in politics, governance, business and all other life pursuits because no matter what you do, people will always take center stage, they will need to be organized in harmony with dignity, justice and fairness by leaders of moral integrity, humility, and persevering conscience of doing what is right and altruistic irrespective of the cost. In its refined form Ubuntu leadership is guided by the principles of trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, compassion, caring and good citizenship and the avoidance of individualism, self-importance, negative competition, immorality, and uncaring behaviors (Bhengu 1996).
Through thorough consultations, decisions are taken jointly, hence it becomes easier to own a common vision or destiny which ultimately becomes what some have termed the invisible leadership ownership of a shared vision. This type of leadership ensures continuity and consistence in times of crises and in turn creates stability. In Shona there is an adage which says that Kufa kwemujonhi kamba haivharwe – meaning that the mission or objective cannot be abandoned because of the absence or death of a leader. This facet is absent in Trait and Great man theories where primacy is placed on individual leaders who are believed to possess some special abilities to lead implying that their absence will lead to the end of the original mission of the organization.
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