Chapter 5:
Methodology
Social research avoids using of the positivist paradigm for a number of reasons.Firstly, linear science does not cater for alternative ways to think about a particular situation (Guba and Lincoln, 1989). The fact that differences in opinion between stakeholders cannot be accounted for shows that the positivist paradigm is incompetent when dealing with qualitative data. Also, science makes factual claims based on statistical methods; this is often inappropriate as speculation is an important component of building research (Bharadwaj, 1996). Secondly, the over-dependence on science and its formal quantitative measurements for hard data in an unpredictable environment results in biased or left out material (Checkland,1993). Guba and Lincoln (1989) state that nature cannot be predicted whereas science maintains certainty. Experimentation using scientific method makes science's claims certain under the conditions set. However,the argument is whether this certainty is valid in an unpredictable, dynamic and complex world (Checkland, 1993).
Thirdly, the positivist paradigm traditionally keeps the researcher or observer outside of the situation.Social sciences are intrinsically different from the natural sciences where the observer is concerned. Observations may be attributed different meanings depending on the individual doing the observation. This subjectivity forms the core of social research recognising that an error in the eyes of one individual may be seen as success by another (Checkland, 1993). As a result, positivist approaches to research, although popular in the past, have become increasingly redundant where complexity is integral to the research as in the case of the Loteni site (Guba and Lincoln, 1989; Stake, 1995).
5.2.2 Constructivist paradigm
Constructivism is a holistic approach that has developed an interactive process that includes the researcher and stakeholders in constructing the realities of the case.
Historically, research has ignored other actors in the situation and their values and constructions. The constructivist paradigm enables stakeholders affected by the research to table their claims, concerns and issues (Stake,1995).
Constructivism, also known as social constructionism or phenomenology, recognises that knowledge, rather than being discovered, is constructed (Guba and Lincoln, 1989). This explains how people experience and describe the world in which they live. Thoughts,
descriptions and interpretations of the world are socially constructed (Slife and Williams, 1995).
Constructivist research IS determined by involving stakeholders in negotiations.
Constructions of reality are developed by the stakeholders. These constructions, i.e.
qualitative data, are used for the research rather than quantitative data. Constructivist, methodology rejects the idea of an objective reality but rather emphasizes that realities are social constructions (Guba and Lincoln, 1989).
Having discussed the philosophical perspectives of research it is now necessary to outline wherein the current research is located.
Positivism and constructivism represent two opposite ends of a continuum, as shown in Table 2. A preference for the positivist paradigm is unlikely in this research as perceptions of individuals and other social phenomena do not fit within the positivist tradition (Adams, 2003). Preference for the constructivist end of the continuum provides opportunity to represent reality from the stakeholders perspective. Constructivism is also open to the utilisation of a range of methods, even those informed by the positivist paradigm. The point here is to provide a representative reality and constructivism itself is a construction of the mind presented to enable exploration of a social constructed reality.
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Table 2: Continuum extremes0 comnetinzDJ OSODIica nersnectives
Characteristics of positivism Characteristics of social constructivism
Ontological
•
External and independent of the•
Reality is socially constructed andposition: the nature observer apprehendable in multiple forms
of reality
•
Objective and ordered•
Interpretive: socially and•
Single reality experientially based•
Belief in laws,uniformity and•
Changing realitiesgeneralisability of knowledge
•
A product of human minds and•
Reductionistand deterministic has no independent status of its own, reality is determined by meanings individuals give to experienceEpistemological
•
Value free acquisition of sense•
There is no neutral ground for position: acquiring data accessible by the scientific knowledge since all observation is knowledge of reality process which is the only reliable value ladenfoundation for knowledge
•
Observer becomes part of what is•
Neutrality observed•
Dualism: researcher remains•
Getting close to the subject objective and exterior to the•
Adopting a holistic view of socialsubject phenomena
•
Reduction of the natural world•
View social phenomena in their•
Nomothetic (law giving) natural environments generalisations•
Idiographic (relating to•
Direct experience individuals) generalisations•
Sense data•
Empirical verificationAim of the research
•
Suited to the study of"It"beings•
Suited to the study of human to generate causal and fundamental beingslaws to human behaviour
•
Those metaphysical things that•
Explanation,prediction, control positivismdiscounts or cannot access through empirical facts, such as values•
Understanding, exploration, emancipationAttitude of the
•
Detached,independent, impartial•
Involved, interacts withtheresearcher subject in order to gain
understanding of the phenomenon Methods
•
Natural sciences methods•
Multiple methods to establish•
Measuring operationalised different views of the sameconcepts phenomena
•
Use of large samples•
Small samples investigated in•
Manipulation and control of depth over timeisolated variables for the
•
Social constructions can be measurement of their relationships elicited and refined throughwith others interaction between the researcher
•
Uniformity and generalisability of and the respondent knowledgeAdams (2003)