3.3 The defining features of my conception of civil society
3.3.3 Shared goals
Closely linked to this is the argument that it is important for citizens not only to consider others, but to work together and act as a group with shared goals and not always as individual actors. Aristotle stresses the importance of citizens working together as a community in order to ensure the success of the society. He suggests that there should be „concord‟ - a kind of civic friendship among citizens - to ensure that citizens work together in a spirit of mutual goodwill (Heater 2004:17). This idea of „concord‟
illustrates that Aristotle not only argues that we should act as a group, but that each member of the group should be acting towards shared goals and with respect to each others‟ needs and interests. While Aristotle speaks of the need for „concord‟ in society, increasingly modern society seems to be characterised by „discord.‟ There is mounting evidence of fundamentalism in the current global climate: the fundamentalist Christians in the USA and fundamentalist Islam in the Middle East. While precise numbers are not published, data has shown that there have been more than 920 suicide bombings in Iraq and 260 in Afghanistan since the USA‟s invasions of the countries in 2003 and 2001 respectively.16 These attacks have resulted in scores of deaths of both civilians and American soldiers. A single incident in Baghdad in August 2010 left at least 57 soldiers dead.17 Occurrences of extreme youth violence are also alarmingly prevalent as evidenced in the numerous school shootings in the USA: since the 1999 Columbine tragedy, there have been sixty recorded school shootings in the USA, resulting in 181
16 Wright, R. 2008, Since 2001, a Dramatic Increase in Suicide Bombings, Apr 18 edn, Washington
Post,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/story/2008/04/18/ST2008041800913.html, [16 August 2010].
17 Reuters. 2010, Al Qaeda claims responsibility for attack in Iraq, Aug 20 edn, Reuters, http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE67J0AQ [30 August 2010].
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deaths.18 There have also been examples of this kind violence in South Africa: in 2008 an eighteen year old learner killed his fellow classmate with a samurai sword in order to make „other children take notice‟ of him.19 This fundamentalism suggests that there are people on the fringes of society – people who do not express their views in the public sphere but act out against the prevailing conceptions of the good. In the age of the internet it has becoming increasingly possible to isolate yourself completely from society and emerge yourself in a fantasy world of chat rooms or online games. More significantly, it has also become increasingly possible for fringe groups to gain support through creating online communities of disillusioned citizens. The most extreme example of this is Islamic fundamentalist websites that encourage young Muslims to join the „holy war‟.20 It is thus important to have a shared public space where all interests are treated with equal consideration. If we are able to create this shared space of discussion those who currently feel isolated and desperate may be more inclined to join society as opposed to acting out against it. I argue that there is moral value in a space where all have the opportunity to act as equals – not only does it have the potential to limit the creation of extremist groups but the open conflict of interests is important in the process of determining what is in the shared interests of society.
Rousseau seems to endorse this view of „concord‟ with his idea of the „general will‟
discussed earlier. Both Aristotle and Rousseau suggest that citizens should act as a collective and with the interests of all in mind in order to achieve a flourishing society.
On the one hand, Aristotle believes that this could be achieved as citizens act out of
18 Telegraph. 2009, Mass school –shootings double in a decade, report shows, 29 Jun edn, Telegraph,
www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/5689760/mass-school-shootings-double-in-adecade-reports- show.html [17 August 2010].
19 SAPA. 2009, Samuri Sword boy admits to murder, Apr 4 edn, M&G Media, http://www.mg.co.za/article/2009-04-14- sword-killer-pleads-guilty [13 June 2009].
20 Hassan, H. 2010, Visitors to extremist websites face prosecution , Jun 22 edn, The National,
http://www.thenational.ae/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20100622/NATIONAL/100629932/1138/MULTIMEDIA [5 September 2010].
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feelings of goodwill and friendship. In Aristotle‟s conception, citizens should be able to rule and be ruled. It is thus important for citizens to act in the best interests of all citizens and to work together as they are directly involved in the running of the state.
Rousseau on the other hand suggests that citizens will act in line with the general will as it is what we have rationally determined. He argues that the general will is necessary as once men are in society they become jealous and competitive and thus the general will is needed to encourage virtue and goodness and so maintain order. I agree with both Aristotle and Rousseau on the importance of acting as a collective but I suggest that the citizens should be motivated to do so because of the moral value that shared participation has to both the individual and democracy. This view is supported by Young who argues that
in participatory democratic institutions citizens develop and exercise capacities of reasoning, discussion and socialising that otherwise lie dormant, and they move out of their private existence to address others and face them with respect and concern for justice.
(1989:252) Group participation can be seen as an important area of personal growth for citizens and an act of moral worth. Citizens engage with each other and so are made aware of each others‟ interests and concerns. Debate between citizens creates the opportunity to exercise reasoning and discussion skills which can enhance a citizen‟s capacity to deal with moral issues. Barber suggests that this kind of shared participation serves to strengthen democracy as well as the individual citizen,
like players on a team or soldiers at war, those who practice a common politics may come to feel ties that they never felt before they commenced their common activity. This sort of bonding, which emphasises common procedures, common work and a shared sense of what a community needs
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to succeed, rather than monolithic purposes and ends, serves strong democracy most successfully.
(1984:244)
Citizens acting together is therefore a key aspect of a thickened conception of civil society. Through acting together, citizens may form attachments to fellow citizens and feel a sense of community and shared goals. What Barber illustrates is that this shared sense of what a community needs is able to strengthen democracy because citizens are working toward shared goals.