3.1 Introduction
In the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r an e x p l o r a t i o n was m a d e of t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to t h e r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e and a v a r i e t y of c o n c e p t s r a n g i n g from a p p r a i s a l to s c h o o l i m p r o v e m e n t . R e f l e c t i o n was p r e s e n t e d as an a p p r o a c h for d e a l i n g w i t h i s s u e s in the work s i t u a t i o n . The s t u d y a r g u e s for a r e f l e c t i v e a p p r o a c h in t h e s h a r i n g of e x p e r i e n c e s and o b s e r v a t i o n s made on w h a t and t h i n g s u n f o l d in the c o n t e x t of w o r k . R e f l e c t i o n is v i e w e d as b e i n g i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k e d to s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g . R e f l e c t i o n p r o m o t e s the use of d i a l o g u e and s h a r i n g of e x p e r i e n c e s b a s e d on the p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s . On the o t h e r side s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g as an a p p r o a c h e n a b l e s t h e a n a l y s t to u t i l i s e s y s t e m s t o o l s in t h e i n t e r r o g a t i o n of a s s u m p t i o n s , b e l i e f s and m e n t a l m o d e l s . T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g as t h e a p p r o a c h u s e d in the s t u d y . T h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n is a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w of t h e c o n c e p t s t h a t form an i n t e g r a l p a r t of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g is p r e s e n t e d as t h e c o r n e r s t o n e of t h i s r e s e a r c h e n t e r p r i s e . T h e s y s t e m s t o o l s used in t h e p r o c e s s of c o n d u c t i n g the r e s e a r c h are c l a r i f i e d . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g is c o n s i d e r e d to be a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t was u s e d d u r i n g t h e a p p r o a c h to t h e s t u d y by the r e s e a r c h e r . The o t h e r p a r t s of t h i s c h a p t e r e l a b o r a t e on the c o n c e p t s t h a t S e n g e u s e s as he is a l s o one of the e x p o n e n t s of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g . 3.2 Systems Thinking
Before one can get i n t o d e e p e r d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g one need to u n p a c k t h e c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s of the c o n c e p t ; one n e e d s to first u n d e r s t a n d w h a t is m e a n t by the t e r m s y s t e m . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g forms such an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the a p p r o a c h t h a t was u s e d in u n d e r s t a n d i n g the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and IQMS p o l i c i e s in t h e s c h o o l s in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t W a r d .
3.3 What is a system?
A s y s t e m is a c o l l e c t i o n of t h i n g s and or a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h are i n t e r r e l a t e d and w h i c h can be r e g a r d e d as a s i n g l e , w h o l e e n t i t y t h a t has a p u r p o s e and t h a t can a d a p t and s u r v i v e in a c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t such t h a t the p u r p o s e c o n t i n u e s to be met ( S y d n e y L u c k e t 2 0 0 4 c i t e d in N o t e s on Soft S y s t e m s M e t h o d o l o g y : 1). A c k o f f ( 1 9 9 9 ) d e f i n e s a s y s t e m as a set of t w o or m o r e r e l a t e d and i n t e r d e p e n d e n t e l e m e n t s . In his e l a b o r a t i o n , he b e l i e v e s a s y s t e m is a w h o l e t h a t c a n n o t be d i v i d e d i n t o
i n d e p e n d e n t p a r t s . S y s t e m s t h e o r i s t s h a v e d e f i n e d the c r i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a s y s t e m as b e i n g i n t e r d e p e n d e n t and i n t e r c o n n e c t e d . S y s t e m s are l o o k e d at in p a t t e r n s and t y p e s of c y c l e s and i n c l u d e e x p l i c i t m o d e l l i n g of c o m p l e x i s s u e s . In t h e d i s c i p l i n e of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g e a c h s y s t e m is p e r c e i v e d as a w h o l e , w i t h i n t e r c o n n e c t e d p a r t s t h a t i n t e r a c t and i n f l u e n c e each o t h e r ( M o l o i , G r o b l e r and G r o v e t t 2 0 0 2 : 89). A c c o r d i n g t o F r e n c h and Bell ( 1 9 9 5 ) i n t e r r e l a t e d p a r t s are b o u n d t o g e t h e r in s u c h a way t h a t t h e y b e c o m e c o h e r e n t w i t h one a n o t h e r ( c i t e d in M o l o i e t . a l 2 0 0 2 : 8 9 ) . A s y s t e m is a n u m b e r of i n t e r d e p e n d e n t c o m p o n e n t s t h a t form a w h o l e and work t o g e t h e r to a t t a i n a c o m m o n goal ( I b i d . 2 0 0 2 : 3 ) . C a p r a ( 1 9 9 6 ) c o n t e n d s t h a t a s y s t e m is an i n t e g r a t e d w h o l e w h o s e e s s e n t i a l p r o p e r t i e s a r i s e from t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n its p a r t s , w h i l s t s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g is t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p h e n o m e n o n w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of a l a r g e r w h o l e ( c i t e d in S i n g h 2 0 0 2 :
14).
S y s t e m s can be a s c r i b e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ;
• p u r p o s e
• b o u n d a r y ( i e s )
• e m e r g e n t p r o p e r t i e s
• e x i s t e n c e in n e s t e d h i e r a r c h i e s
• i n t e r n a l p r o c e s s e s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n and c o n t r o l
• ( L u c k e t t , 1996: 6 - 7 ) . 3.4 What is system thinking?
S y s t e m i c t h i n k i n g is t h e c o n c e p t u a l c o r n e r s t o n e of P e t e r S e n g e ' s a p p r o a c h . It is t h e d i s c i p l i n e t h a t i n t e g r a t e s t h e o t h e r s , f u s i n g t h e m into a c o h e r e n t b o d y of t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e ( 1 9 9 0 : 1 2 ) . S y s t e m s t h e o r y e n a b l e s t h e a n a l y s t to c o m p r e h e n d and a d d r e s s t h e w h o l e , and to e x a m i n e t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the p a r t s . P e t e r S e n g e a d v o c a t e d the i n t e g r a t i o n of all t h e five d i s c i p l i n e s i n t o a c o h e r e n t s y s t e m . The o t h e r four d i s c i p l i n e s are c e n t r e d on s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g a l l o w s p e o p l e to look b e y o n d the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t and to a p p r e c i a t e t h e i m p a c t of t h e i r a c t i o n s u p o n o t h e r s (and v i c e v e r s a ) . To t h i s e x t e n t it h o l d s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a c h i e v i n g a m o r e h o l i s t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g . S e c o n d , s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g offers a l a n g u a g e t h a t a d d r e s s e s t h e s t r u c t u r e of o n e ' s t h i n k i n g . It e n a b l e s us to r e t h i n k the way we p e r c e i v e p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s in o r g a n i s a t i o n s . Senge a r g u e s t h a t one of t h e key p r o b l e m s w i t h m u c h t h a t is w r i t t e n a b o u t , and done in t h e n a m e of m a n a g e m e n t , is t h a t r a t h e r s i m p l i s t i c f r a m e w o r k s are a p p l i e d to w h a t are c o m p l e x s y s t e m s . W h e n we add t h e s e t w o p o i n t s t o g e t h e r it is p o s s i b l e to move b e y o n d a f o c u s on t h e p a r t s , to b e g i n to see t h e w h o l e , and to a p p r e c i a t e o r g a n i s a t i o n as a d y n a m i c p r o c e s s . T h u s , the a r g u m e n t r u n s , a b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n of s y s t e m s will lead to more a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to Senge ( 1 9 9 0 ) s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g a l l o w s us to r e a l i s e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of f e e d b a c k m e c h a n i s m s in o r g a n i s a t i o n s . S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) c o n c l u d e s t h a t s y s t e m s v i e w p o i n t is g e n e r a l l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h e l o n g - t e r m v i e w . He r e c o g n i s e s the
s i g n i f i c a n c e of d e l a y s and f e e d b a c k l o o p s in the s y s t e m . Senge ( 1 9 9 0 : 9 2 ) c o n s i d e r s t h a t f e e d b a c k l o o p s are u n a v o i d a b l e and i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g is a c o r n e r s t o n e of how l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s t h i n k a b o u t t h e i r w o r l d .
Senge ( 1 9 9 0 ) c o n s i d e r s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e d i s c i p l i n e s as p i v o t a l for the a n a l y s t , w h e r e a s o t h e r w r i t e r s e m p h a s i z e t h e s y s t e m s t h e o r y . A c c o r d i n g to F r a n c i s C h a p m a n s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g a s s i s t s in p r o v i d i n g t o o l s for h a n d l i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t y more a d e q u a t e l y and h e l p i n g d e e p e n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s ( c i t e d in A r m s o n , C h a p m a n , H a m w e e , M a r t i n and P a t o n 1 999 : 7 ) . John R o b l e s c o n t e n d s t h a t s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g e n a b l e s one to t a c k l e p r o b l e m s in a s c i e n t i f i c a n d h o l i s t i c way ( c i t e d in A r m s o n e t . a l . e t . a l . 1 9 9 9 : 8 ) . Paul W a r r e n ( c i t e d in A r m s o n e t . a l . 1999:
8) r e g a r d s s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g as a f o r m a l r e c o g n i z e d f r a m e w o r k to e x p l a i n o r g a n i s a t i o n a l e v e n t s . M o s t of the p e o p l e c o n c e r n e d with s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g a g r e e t h a t t h i s a p p r o a c h is of g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e in d e a l i n g w i t h c o m p l e x i s s u e s . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g is d i f f e r e n t from s y s t e m a t i c t h i n k i n g , w h i c h d e a l s w i t h o r d e r l y a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g .
S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g e n a b l e s t h e a n a l y s t to deal w i t h s i t u a t i o n s u s i n g d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of t o o l s . T h e s e t o o l s need to be u s e d per c a s e and c o n t e x t and are r e l e v a n t to a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . The s y s t e m s a n a l y s t g e t s the t o o l s i n t o t h e t o o l b o x , and c h o o s e s t h o s e r e l e v a n t for the c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n b e i n g d e a l t w i t h . The s y s t e m s t o o l s are d r a w n from d i f f e r e n t s p h e r e s of life a n d d i s c i p l i n e s . T h e r e is n e e d for c h a n g e in m i n d s e t and g o i n g b e y o n d t h e b o u n d a r i e s in t r y i n g out new a l t e r n a t i v e w a y s of t h i n k i n g . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g r e q u i r e t h a t we a t t a i n the a b i l i t y to a c q u i r e the a b i l i t y to e x p l o r e and v a l u e o t h e r p e o p l e ' s p o i n t of view and try out new p e r s p e c t i v e s ( A r m s o n e t . a l . 1 9 9 9 : 1 1 ) . T h e t o o l s and t h e i r use will be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e n a t u r e of the p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g o p e n s new a v e n u e s of a t t e m p t i n g to g a i n i n s i g h t into w h a t h a p p e n s in a s y s t e m . It a l s o offers new w a y s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n . D i f f e r e n t k i n d s of t o o l s for t h i n k i n g are d e v e l o p e d and e x p l o r e d for use in v a r i o u s w a y s . S o m e of t h e c o n c e p t s t h a t h a v e b e e n g e n e r a t e d are for an e x a m p l e , b o u n d a r y and p e r s p e c t i v e . A c c o r d i n g to J a c k s o n ( 1 9 9 1 : 1 3 3 ) soft s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g o p e n s up a c o m p l e t e l y new p e r s p e c t i v e on the way s y s t e m s i d e a s can and s h o u l d be used to help w i t h d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g and p r o b l e m s o l v i n g .
The e s s e n c e of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g lies in t h e shift of t h e m i n d s e t in such a way t h a t one is a b l e to see i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s r a t h e r t h a n l i n e a r , c a u s e effect c h a i n s a n d p r o c e s s e s of c h a n g e r a t h e r t h a n snap s h o t s ( M o l o i e t . a l . 2 0 0 2 : 8 9 ) .
3.5 Drawing a boundary
This c o n c e p t is u s e d w h e n t h e s i t u a t i o n is e x p l o r e d and new a n g l e s are t r i e d out in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d the s i t u a t i o n . In d e a l i n g w i t h the s c h o o l as a s y s t e m n e e d s t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and e n u m e r a t i o n t h e e l e m e n t s t h a t make up t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m . T h i s p r o c e s s is r e f e r r e d t o as d r a w i n g t h e
b o u n d a r y . The e l e m e n t s t h a t make up the s c h o o l s y s t e m a r e e n u m e r a t e d . In the d r a w i n g of t h e b o u n d a r y t h e e l e m e n t s t h a t do not fall w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m , fall o u t s i d e of the b o u n d a r y . T h e r e f o r e in a d r a w i n g t h e s e e l e m e n t s can be i l l u s t r a t e d . Some of the e l e m e n t s are t h o s e t h a t come from the e n v i r o n m e n t , yet i n f l u e n c e the s y s t e m . The b o u n d a r y i n c l u d e s all the p a r t s of the o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s y s t e m w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r y and e v e r y t h i n g o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r y is c o n s i d e r e d as b e l o n g i n g to the o r g a n i s a t i o n s y s t e m s e n v i r o n m e n t ( U l r i c h 1983 in S i n g h 2 0 0 2 : 1 2 ) .
3.6 Perspective
A c c o r d i n g to A r m s o n e t . a l . ( 1 9 9 9 : 1 8 ) p e r s p e c t i v e is t h e a b i l i t y to e x p l o r e and v a l u e o t h e r p e o p l e ' s p o i n t s of v i e w . A r m s o n e t . a l . c o n s i d e r t h e s e t w o t h i n k i n g t o o l s as the main f e a t u r e s for i n t e l l e c t u a l t h i n k i n g ( 1 9 9 9 : 11). F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y e x p o s e the s h o r t c o m i n g s in l o g i c a l and c a u s a l t h i n k i n g . T h e y a r e c r i t i c a l of t h e e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h for l e a v i n g out the s u b j e c t i v e and e m o t i o n a l f a c t o r s ( A r m s o n e t . a l . 1999: 1 1). The b e h a v i o u r of s y s t e m s is u n p r e d i c t a b l e t h e r e f o r e t h e s e t o o l s c a n n o t be used in s u c h c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n s . S y s t e m s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e s s and f e e d b a c k l o o p s . The s c i e n t i f i c way of b r e a k i n g down s y s t e m s i n t o s m a l l e l e m e n t s may not be a p p l i c a b l e in all i n s t a n c e s . The r e d u c t i o n i s t a p p r o a c h a r t i f i c i a l l y r e s t r i c t s t h e c o m p o n e n t s in a s y s t e m to r e p e a t a b l e e x p e r i m e n t s . By p e r s p e c t i v e s is m e a n t p o i n t s of v i e w , in o r d e r to know m o r e a b o u t the w h o l e ( A r m s o n e t . a l . 1 9 9 9 : 1 7 ) . One way of i d e n t i f y i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s of p e o p l e is what is c a l l e d W e l t a n s c h a u u n g or w o r l d v i e w . By w o r l d v i e w is m e a n t an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p e o p l e ' s b e l i e f s , a s s u m p t i o n s , v a l u e s and i n t e r e s t s . R o l e - p l a y i n g is one way t h a t can be u s e d for e x p o s i n g d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s on an i s s u e . S e c o n d l y , one o t h e r way is to see the s y s t e m t h r o u g h t h e e y e s of a n o t h e r p e r s o n ( A r m s o n e t . a l . et. al. 1 9 9 9 : 17).
3.7 Difference between a difficulty and a messy situation
The s y s t e m d i f f e r s in t e r m s of d e g r e e s of p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s . Some of the s i t u a t i o n s may be r e f e r r e d to as d i f f i c u l t , d e p e n d i n g on the c o m p l e x i t y and s e r i o u s n e s s t h e y m a n i f e s t . T h e r e are s i t u a t i o n s t h a t may be r e f e r r e d to as d i f f i c u l t and t h o s e t h a t are m e s s e s b e c a u s e of the n a t u r e of t h e i r c o m p l e x i t y . A c c o r d i n g to L a n e e t . a l ( 1 9 9 9 ) t h e s i m p l e r s i t u a t i o n s are r e f e r r e d to as d i f f i c u l t i e s , w h e r e a s t h e m o r e c o m p l e x and n a s t i e r ones as m e s s e s . M e s s e s h a v e a n u m b e r of f e a t u r e s t h a t m a k e them q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t from d i f f i c u l t c a s e s ( c i t e d in A r m s o n e t . a l . e t . a l . 1 9 9 9 : 2 7 ) . M e s s e s t e n d to h a v e n u m e r o u s and s e r i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s , w h e r e a s d i f f i c u l t i e s are less c o m p l e x . M e s s e s i n v o l v e a n u m b e r of p e o p l e a n d c o v e r a w i d e and l a r g e r a r e a . In a m e s s y s i t u a t i o n t h e r e are a n u m b e r of i n t e r c o n n e c t e d e l e m e n t s t h a t may a p p e a r in d i f f e r e n t g u i s e s . The m e s s e s due to t h e i r c o m p l e x i t y may last l o n g e r and are q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d . T h e r e is an e l e m e n t of u n c e r t a i n t y w h e n one is d e a l i n g with m e s s e s . A r m s o n e t . a l . ( 1 9 9 9 : 2 8 ) d e s c r i b e s a m e s s as a s i t u a t i o n t h a t is v e r y d i f f i c u l t to pin d o w n . In a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n it is easy to i d e n t i f y the r e l e v a n t f a c t o r s . In a m e s s e v e r y t h i n g l o o k s fuzzy and
d i f f i c u l t to e x p l a i n in t e r m s of what is h a p p e n i n g . T h e r e is l e s s c o n t r o l of the s i t u a t i o n in t e r m s of the d i r e c t i o n it may t a k e . W i t h a d i f f i c u l t y one can be a b l e to i d e n t i f y the f a c t o r s , w h i c h a r e p a r t of the s i t u a t i o n . The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a d i f f i c u l t y and a m e s s is t h a t t h e l a t t e r is u n b o u n d e d , w h e r e a s t h e f o r m e r is b o u n d e d . A c c o r d i n g to H a r d i n g ( 1 9 9 5 : 1 ) a t u r b u l e n t e n v i r o n m e n t is m e s s y to w o r k in, and is m a r k e d by the u n e x p e c t e d c h a n g e s .
S y s t e m t h i n k i n g has a way of d e a l i n g w i t h b o t h d i f f i c u l t and messy- s i t u a t i o n s . S y s t e m s a n a l y s t s can m a k e an o p i n i o n w h e t h e r a s i t u a t i o n is d i f f i c u l t or m e s s y . The d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m can be a n a l y s e d by t h e a n a l y s t and be i n t e r p r e t e d and c o n s i d e r e d for w h a t t h e y are. E m o t i o n a l f a c t o r s can be s e p a r a t e d from t h e r a t i o n a l f a c t o r s t h a t t e n d to i n v o l v e t e c h n i c a l or c o m p u t a t i o n a l c o m p l e x i t y , w h i c h is k n o w n as " h a r d " c o m p l e x i t y . E m o t i o n a l f a c t o r s are c o n s i d e r e d as " s o f t " i s s u e s and i n c l u d e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of p e o p l e w i t h i n the s y s t e m ( A r m s o n e t . a l . 1999: 3 7 ) . In t h i s a p p r o a c h one is d e a l i n g w i t h a lot of i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t n e e d s to be o r g a n i s e d in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n . A h o l i s t i c way is p r e f e r a b l e in s i m p l i f y i n g r e a l i t y by t a k i n g m u l t i p l e p a r t i a l v i e w s . A s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h to c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n s can a l s o a s s i s t in less e x t r e m e s i t u a t i o n s ( A r m s o n e t . a l . 1 9 9 9 : 2 5 ) . A c c o r d i n g to A r m s o n e t . a l . (1 9 9 9 : 1 7) one way of i d e n t i f y i n g p e r s p e c t i v e s of p e o p l e is what is c a l l e d W e l t a n s c h a u u n g or w o r l d v i e w . A r m s o n et. al. ( 1 9 9 9 : 1 7 ) c o n s i d e r s r o l e p l a y as a way of s e e i n g the s y s t e m t h r o u g h the eyes of a n o t h e r p e r s o n .
3.8 Hard and Soft Systems
S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g s h i f t e d its focus from the t r a d i t i o n a l way of l o o k i n g at m e t h o d s of s o l v i n g the p r o b l e m . R a t h e r , the e m p h a s i s m o v e d to a way of d e a l i n g w i t h c o m p l e x h u m a n p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n s . T h i s shift r e s u l t e d in the p e r c e p t i o n of p r o b l e m s in t e r m s of b e i n g h a r d and soft. J a c k s o n ( 1 9 9 5 ) d e s c r i b e s h a r d p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n s as w e l l - d e f i n e d ( s i m p l e ) p r o b l e m s and a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g o a l s e e k i n g and p r o b l e m s o l v i n g , often c a l l e d " d e t e r m i n i s t i c " . A soft p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , is i l l - d e f i n e d ; it is u n s t r u c t u r e d and is v i e w e d as " p r o b a b i l i s t i c " in n a t u r e ( J a c k s o n , 1 9 9 5 ) . The s h o r t f a l l of t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s is t h e i r f a i l u r e to deal s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h soft p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n s . H a r d s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g is well s u i t e d for u s e in l i n e a r and l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n s , w h i c h are m o r e of a t e c h n i c a l n a t u r e . The a p p r o p r i a t e t o o l s for use of t h e s e are in a r e a s w h i c h r e q u i r e g o a l - s e e k i n g a n d p r o b l e m s o l v i n g ( K i k e r , 1 9 9 9 : 3 4 - 3 5 ) .
3.9 Points of leverage
By p o i n t s of l e v e r a g e S e n g e ( 1 9 9 9 ) m e a n t t h e p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s t h a t p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s in an o r g a n i s a t i o n . In o r d e r to b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e one n e e d s to l o c a t e t h e s e p o i n t s of l e v e r a g e . A c c o r d i n g to F l o o d ( 1 9 9 9 : 1 4 ) l e v e r a g e is a c h i e v e d when a c t i o n is t a k e n t h a t l e a d s to s i g n i f i c a n c e and e n d u r i n g i m p r o v e m e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e F l o o d ( 1 9 9 9 : 15) i n s i s t s t h a t w o r k i n g on l e v e r a g e p o i n t s r e a l i z e s f o c u s e d a c t i o n t h a t is
n o r m a l l y l e s s t h a n o b v i o u s to m o s t p e o p l e o p e r a t i n g s o l e l y from i n t u i t i o n .
3.10 Learning organisation
L e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s are o r g a n i s a t i o n s w h e r e p e o p l e c o n t i n u a l l y e x p a n d t h e i r c a p a c i t y to c r e a t e the r e s u l t s t h e y t r u l y d e s i r e , w h e r e new and e x p a n s i v e p a t t e r n s of t h i n k i n g are n u r t u r e d , w h e r e c o l l e c t i v e a s p i r a t i o n is set f r e e , and w h e r e p e o p l e are c o n t i n u a l l y l e a r n i n g to see the w h o l e t o g e t h e r ( S e n g e 1 9 9 0 : 3 ) . A l e a r n i n g s c h o o l has a v i s i o n of w h e r e it is g o i n g . T h i s s h a r e d v i s i o n c a n n o t be a c h i e v e d s i m p l y by t r a i n i n g i n d i v i d u a l s ; it can only h a p p e n as a r e s u l t of l e a r n i n g at the w h o l e o r g a n i s a t i o n l e v e l . A l e a r n i n g s c h o o l is an o r g a n i s a t i o n t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s t h e l e a r n i n g of a l l its m e m b e r s and c o n t i n u o u s l y t r a n s f o r m s i t s e l f ( P e d l e r et. al. 1 9 9 1 : 1 ) . L e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t o t a l e m p l o y e e i n v o l v e m e n t in a p r o c e s s of c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y c o n d u c t e d , c o l l e c t i v e l y a c c o u n t a b l e c h a n g e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s s h a r e d v a l u e s or p r i n c i p l e s ( W a t k m s and M a r s i c k 1992: 1 1 8 ) .
3.11 Dialogue and the learning organisation
Peter S e n g e ( 1 9 9 9 ) a l s o p l a c e s an e m p h a s i s on d i a l o g u e in o r g a n i s a t i o n s - e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d to t h e d i s c i p l i n e of t e a m l e a r n i n g . D i a l o g u e (or c o n v e r s a t i o n ) as G a d a m e r ( 1 9 7 9 : 3 4 7 ) has a r g u e d is a p r o c e s s of t w o p e o p l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g e a c h o t h e r . As such it is i n h e r e n t l y r i s k y and i n v o l v e s q u e s t i o n i n g our b e l i e f s and a s s u m p t i o n s . T h u s it is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of e v e r y t r u e c o n v e r s a t i o n t h a t each o p e n s h i m s e l f to the o t h e r p e r s o n , t r u l y a c c e p t s his p o i n t of v i e w as w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n and g e t s i n s i d e t h e o t h e r to such an e x t e n t t h a t he u n d e r s t a n d s not a p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l , but w h a t he s a y s . The t h i n g t h a t has to be g r a s p e d is the o b j e c t i v e T i g h t n e s s or o t h e r w i s e of his o p i n i o n , so t h a t they can a g r e e w i t h e a c h o t h e r on a s u b j e c t ( G a d a m e r 1 9 7 9 : 347 c i t e d in S e n g e 1999). The c o n c e r n is not to 'win the a r g u m e n t ' , but to a d v a n c e u n d e r s t a n d i n g and h u m a n w e l l - b e i n g . A g r e e m e n t c a n n o t be i m p o s e d , but rests on c o m m o n c o n v i c t i o n ( H a b e r m a s 1984: 2 8 5 - 2 8 7 ) . As a s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p it e n t a i l s c e r t a i n v i r t u e s and e m o t i o n s ( c i t e d in S e n g e
1 9 9 9 : 3 ) .
It is easy to see why p r o p o n e n t s of the l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n w o u l d p l a c e a s t r o n g e m p h a s i s u p o n d i a l o g u e . As P e t e r S e n g e has a r g u e d , for e x a m p l e , t e a m l e a r n i n g e n t a i l s the c a p a c i t y of m e m b e r s of a t e a m to s u s p e n d a s s u m p t i o n s and e n t e r i n t o a g e n u i n e " t h i n k i n g t o g e t h e r "
( 1 9 9 9 : 1 0 ) . D i a l o g u e is a l s o n e c e s s a r y to o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s e.g. b u i l d i n g a s h a r e d v i s i o n , t e a m l e a r n i n g and d e v e l o p i n g m e n t a l m o d e l s ( c i t e d in Senge 1 9 9 9 : 1 0 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t r i s k s in d i a l o g u e to the o r g a n i s a t i o n . One f a c t o r in the a p p e a l of S e n g e ' s v i e w of d i a l o g u e ( w h i c h was b a s e d u p o n the w o r k of D a v i d Bohm a n d a s s o c i a t e s ) was the p r o m i s e t h a t it c o u l d i n c r e a s e and e n r i c h c o r p o r a t e a c t i v i t y . It c o u l d do
t h i s , in p a r t , t h r o u g h t h e e x p l o r a t i o n and q u e s t i o n i n g of ' i n h e r e n t , p r e d e t e r m i n e d p u r p o s e s and g o a l s ' ( B o h m et. a l . 1991 c i t e d in S e n g e l 9 9 9 ) . T h e r e is a c l e a r p a r a l l e l here w i t h A r g y r i s and S c h o n ' s work on d o u b l e - l o o p l e a r n i n g but i n t e r e s t i n g l y one of B o h m ' s a s s o c i a t e s has s u b s e q u e n t l y s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e i r v i e w was t o o o p t i m i s t i c : ' d i a l o g u e is very s u b v e r s i v e ' ( F a c t o r 1994 c i t e d in S e n g e 1 9 9 9 ) .
The c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s ( S e n g e 1990) p o i n t s to some p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t h i n k i n g held by some m a n a g e r s in o r g a n i s a t i o n s . T h e s e i n c l u d e a f a i l u r e to fully a p p r e c i a t e and i n c o r p o r a t e t h e i m p e r a t i v e s t h a t a n i m a t e m o d e r n o r g a n i s a t i o n s ; t h e r e l a t i v e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of the t h i n k i n g r e q u i r e d of m a n a g e r s (and w h e t h e r m a n y in p r a c t i c e t h e y are up to i t ) ; a n d q u e s t i o n s a r o u n d the t r e a t m e n t of o r g a n i s a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . It is c e r t a i n l y d i f f i c u l t to find r e a l - life e x a m p l e s of l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s ( K e r k a 1995 c i t e d in S e n g e
1 9 9 0 ) .
T h e r e has a l s o b e e n a lack of c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k for l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n . F i n g e r and B r a n d ( 1 9 9 9 ) p r o v i d e us w i t h a u s e f u l l i s t i n g of m o r e i m p o r t a n t s h o r t c o m i n g s of t h e l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n c o n c e p t . T h e y c o n c l u d e t h a t it is not p o s s i b l e to t r a n s f o r m a b u r e a u c r a t i c o r g a n i s a t i o n by l e a r n i n g i n i t i a t i v e s a l o n e . They b e l i e v e t h a t by r e f e r r i n g to t h e n o t i o n of the l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n it was p o s s i b l e to m a k e c h a n g e less t h r e a t e n i n g and m o r e a c c e p t a b l e to p a r t i c i p a n t s . F i n g e r a n d B r a n d ( 1 9 9 9 : 1 4 6 ) c o n t e n d t h a t the s u c c e s s for o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c h a n g e a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is a c o l l e c t i v e effort. They f u r t h e r s u g g e s t t h a t l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s need to h a v e a c l e a r f o c u s . They a r g u e t h a t l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s focus on t h e f o l l o w i n g ;
" F o c u s e s m a i n l y on t h e c u l t u r a l d i m e n s i o n , and d o e s not a d e q u a t e l y t a k e into a c c o u n t the o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s of an o r g a n i s a t i o n . To t r a n s f o r m an o r g a n i s a t i o n it is n e c e s s a r y to a t t e n d to s t r u c t u r e s and t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of work as w e l l as t h e c u l t u r e and p r o c e s s e s . F o c u s i n g e x c l u s i v e l y on t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s in o r d e r to f o s t e r l e a r n i n g f a v o u r s t h i s p u r e l y c u l t u r a l b i a s " ( F i n g e r and B r a n d 1 9 9 9 : 1 4 6 ) .
The e x a c t f u n c t i o n s of o r g a n i s a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g n e e d to be m o r e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d . O r g a n i s a t i o n a l l e a r n i n g is j u s t a m e a n s in o r d e r to a c h i e v e s t r a t e g i c o b j e c t i v e s . But c r e a t i n g a l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n is a l s o a g o a l , s i n c e t h e a b i l i t y p e r m a n e n t l y and c o l l e c t i v e l y t o l e a r n is a n e c e s s a r y p r e c o n d i t i o n for t h r i v i n g in the new c o n t e x t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e c a p a c i t y of an o r g a n i s a t i o n to l e a r n , t h a t i s , to f u n c t i o n like a l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n , n e e d s t o be m a d e m o r e c o n c r e t e and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , so t h a t the m a n a g e m e n t of s u c h l e a r n i n g can be m a d e m o r e e f f e c t i v e ( F i n g e r and B r a n d 1 9 9 9 : 1 4 7 ) .
F i n g e r and B r a n d ( 1 9 9 9 : 1 4 7 ) c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e r e is a need to d e v e l o p a t r u e m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m of an o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s e v o l v i n g l e a r n i n g c a p a c i t y . T h e y s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s can be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h d e f i n i n g i n d i c a t o r s of l e a r n i n g ( i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e ) and by c o n n e c t i n g them to o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s ( F i n g e r and B r a n d : 1 4 7 ) .
3.12 Learning
Day ( 1 9 8 7 ) ( c i t e d in B u s h e r and S a r a n 1 9 9 5 : 114) i n d i c a t e s t h e f u t i l i t y of t e a c h e r s w o r k i n g a l o n e in t h e i r c l a s s r o o m s in s i l o s . T h i s t e n d s to r e s t r i c t t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . A r g y r i s and S c h o n ( 1 9 7 4 ) d e s c r i b e s i n g l e - l o o p l e a r n i n g as a way in w h i c h l e a r n i n g t e n d s to m a i n t a i n t h e field of c o n s t a n c y by d e s i g n i n g a c t i o n s t h a t satisfy e x i s t i n g g o v e r n i n g v a r i a b l e s ( c i t e d in B u s h e r and S a r a n 1 9 9 5 : 1 1 4 ) . This kind of a p p r o a c h to t e a c h i n g is r e s t r i c t i v e and n o n - d e v e l o p m e n t a l in n a t u r e . A r g y r i s and S c h o n ( 1 9 7 4 ) e m p h a s i z e t h e need for ' d o u b l e - l o o p ' l e a r n i n g in w h i c h i n t e n t i o n s and p r a c t i c e s in t e a c h i n g a r e r a i s e d to an e x p l i c i t , p u b l i c l y a c c e s s i b l e l e v e l , and o t h e r s a d v o c a t e a c t i o n r e s e a r c h as a p o w e r f u l m e a n s of a c h i e v i n g t h i s ( c i t e d in B u s h e r and S a r a n
1 9 9 5 : 1 1 4 ) . Day ( 1 9 8 7 ) c o n d u c t e d a lot of r e s e a r c h in c l a s s r o o m o b s e r v a t i o n , a n a l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n of i n - s e r v i c e p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t in p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s in s u p p o r t of r e f l e c t i o n on t e a c h i n g ( c i t e d in B u s h e r and S a r a n 1 9 9 5 : 1 1 4 ) . D u r i n g t h i s p r o c e s s Day ( 1 9 8 7 ) was o b s e r v i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n w h a t is c o n s i d e r e d as s i n g l e - l o o p l e a r n i n g a n d ' d o u b l e - l o o p ' l e a r n i n g .
A r g y r i s and S c h o n ( 1 9 7 6 ) c h a r a c t e r i z e the n o r m a l way of l e a r n i n g as ' s i n g l e - l o o p l e a r n i n g ' . T h e y a r g u e for ' d o u b l e - l o o p l e a r n i n g ' , t h a t a l l o w s t h i n g s t h a t w e r e p r e v i o u s l y t a k e n for g r a n t e d to be seen as p r o b l e m a t i c , and o p e n i n g o n e s e l f to new p e r s p e c t i v e s and new s o u r c e s of e v i d e n c e ( c i t e d in Day et.al 1987: 2 0 ) . T h e r e are d e c i s i o n s t h a t are made b a s e d due to r u l e of t h u m b and are n e v e r c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y s e d . The way we t e n d to p e r f o r m some of our a c t i v i t i e s may no l o n g e r be a p p r o p r i a t e for the o c c a s i o n and t h e c o n t e x t .
The r o l e of l e a d e r s h i p and m a n a g e m e n t is to c r e a t e a c o n d u c i v e e n v i r o n m e n t for p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . A l e a r n i n g a t m o s p h e r e in a s c h o o l n e e d s to be p r o m o t e d and t e a c h e r s can be m o t i v a t e d to e n g a g e in l e a r n i n g and r e f l e c t i o n on t h e i r d a y - t o - d a y a c t i v i t i e s . T h e y can do t h i s by a l l o w i n g t i m e and r e s o u r c e s for e n g a g i n g in t e a c h e r r e f l e c t i o n , e v a l u a t i o n and p l a n n i n g for s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t . The a l t e r n a t i v e r e q u i r e s l i s t e n i n g to t h e t e a c h e r ' s n e e d s for l e a r n i n g . Day e t . a l ( 1 9 8 7 : 2 1 ) s u g g e s t s t h e f o l l o w i n g p r i n c i p l e s as a way of m a x i m i z i n g the c o n d i t i o n s for e f f e c t i v e p r o f e s s i o n a l l e a r n i n g in the c o n t e x t of a p p r a i s a l v i z ;
L e a r n i n g r e q u i r e s o p p o r t u n i t i e s for r e f l e c t i o n and s e l f - c o n f r o n t a t i o n ; t e a c h e r s and s c h o o l s are m o t i v a t e d to l e a r n by t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of an i s s u e or p r o b l e m w h i c h c o n c e r n t h e m . T e a c h e r s l e a r n b e s t t h r o u g h a c t i v e e x p e r i e n c i n g and p a r t i c i p a t i o n . D e c i s i o n s a b o u t c h a n g e s h o u l d a r i s e from r e f l e c t i o n s u p o n and c o n f r o n t a t i o n of p a s t and p r e s e n t p r a c t i c e . S c h o o l s and t e a c h e r s need s u p p o r t t h r o u g h o u t p r o c e s s e s of c h a n g e .
A m o d e l a d v o c a t e d by H a n d a l and L a u r i s ( c i t e d in G r a v e s 1990: 65) a l s o d e s c r i b e s t h e r o l e of t h e p e o p l e i n v o l v e d in o b s e r v a t i o n . The
o b s e r v a t i o n n e e d s to be done in such a way t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n i n g s h o u l d be b a s e d on key i s s u e s Such key i s s u e s may i n v o l v e r e f l e c t i o n on l e s s o n p r e s e n t a t i o n , e x a m i n a t i o n of a s s u m p t i o n s h e l d by l e a r n e r s , o b s e r v e r s , and t h e e d u c a t o r . One can i m a g i n e the lack of d e v e l o p m e n t of the e v a l u e e if the s u p e r v i s o r and p e e r s i m p l y sit down a n d r i n g on the l e v e l s and p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s . The role of o b s e r v a t i o n of b o t h t h e s u p e r v i s o r and p e e r is q u i t e c r u c i a l for the d i a l o g u e t h a t n e e d s to e n s u e b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i e s c o n c e r n e d .
It is d i f f i c u l t for p e o p l e to work r e f l e c t i v e l y w h e n t h e y are p r e s s u r e d for t i m e a n d t h i s p o s e s a n o t h e r p r o b l e m . T h e t e n d e n c y is t h a t e d u c a t o r s will r e s o r t to r i t u a l i s m . T h e s e i n a d e q u a c i e s are m a n i f e s t a t i o n s at t i m e s of lack in s k i l l s a n d a l s o a lack in t i m e m a n a g e m e n t . The m e m b e r s of the D e v e l o p m e n t S u p p o r t G r o u p ( D S G ) need to be t r a i n e d in the use of r e f l e c t i o n as a t h i n k i n g t o o l . The lack of t i m e on r e f l e c t i n g on t h e e x p e r i e n c e s p o s e s a n o t h e r p r o b l e m for p r a c t i t i o n e r s , w h e n t h e y fail to t h i n k on t h e s p o t . The D S G ' s n e e d e d to a d v o c a t e c o l l a b o r a t i o n in the s e n s e t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n n e e d s to be j o i n t l y d i s c u s s e d by t h e a p p r a i s e e , peer and s u p e r v i s o r . The r e s e a r c h e r j o i n t l y p r o m o t e d t h e use of d i a r i e s for d i s c u s s i o n and r e f l e c t i o n .
3.13 Summary
In t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t h a s b e e n r e v i e w e d , the s i g n i f i c a n c e of s y s t e m s t h e o r y was o u t l i n e d . The j u s t i f i c a t i o n for u s i n g s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g as an a p p r o a c h to t h e s t u d y was a l s o e m p h a s i z e d . S y s t e m s t h e o r y as such is a wide f i e l d ; h o w e v e r s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g forms a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t in t h i s field. T h e a c c o u n t in t h i s c h a p t e r is by no m e a n s a c o m p l e t e o n e . H o w e v e r , it d o e s c l a r i f y key a s p e c t s t h a t p e r t a i n to the s t u d y . The f o u n d a t i o n t h a t has a l r e a d y b e e n laid by j u s t i f y i n g t h e use of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g c a n n o t be o v e r - e m p h a s i s e d . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g as a p e r s p e c t i v e , p r e s e n t s a p a r t i c u l a r way to the a p p r o a c h on r e a l i t y . As p a r t of t h i s c h a p t e r t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t was r e v i e w e d i n c l u d e d S e n g e ' s a p p r o a c h to s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g , w h i c h he c o n s i d e r s as t h e c o r n e r s t o n e of the five d i s c i p l i n e s . S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) b r i n g s a n o t h e r d y n a m i c a p p r o a c h by p u t t i n g s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g at t h e c e n t r e of t h e o t h e r four d i s c i p l i n e s . S e n g e t a k e s the i s s u e of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g i n t o the o r g a n i s a t i o n s , by b r i n g i n g in the c o n c e p t of l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s . T h i s b r i n g s in a n o t h e r s l a n t to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n s and the e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h t h e y o p e r a t e .
This c h a p t e r forms t h e s c a f f o l d s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r o l e of Soft S y s t e m s M e t h o d o l o g y in c o n d u c t i n g the r e s e a r c h . Soft S y s t e m s M e t h o d o l o g y is a m e t h o d o l o g y w h i c h is l o c a t e d w i t h i n the b r o a d s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g p a r a d i g m . The focus in t h e n e x t c h a p t e r will be on C h e c k l a n d ' s s e v e n s t a g e Soft S y s t e m s M e t h o d o l o g y . The s t u d y will follow an i n t e r p r e t i v i s t , and q u a l i t a t i v e p a r a d i g m , b a s e d on the use of SMM t o o l s in c o n d u c t i n g the r e s e a r c h .