CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY
4.3 Understanding Soft Systems Methodology
W o o d w a r d ( 1 9 9 8 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t r e f l e c t i o n t e n d s to r e m a i n p r i v a t e and r e f l e c t i o n on a c t i o n s e l d o m b e c o m e s e x p l i c i t u n l e s s s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s e s are put in p l a c e to e n c o u r a g e t h i s ( c i t e d in B a l f o u r e t . a l . 2 0 0 5: 6 1 ) . J o n e s e t . a l . ( 1 9 8 9 : 1 3 2 ) p r o m o t e t h e u s e of d i a r i e s by t e a c h e r s for o b s e r v a t i o n s and c o m m e n t s d u r i n g the a c t i v i t y of e v a l u a t i o n . T e a c h e r s can w r i t e n o t e s and c o m m e n t s b a s e d on t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e s e d i a r i e s . By so d o i n g t h e y can i d e n t i f y p a t t e r n s and c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h i n g s w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e r e m a i n u n a r t i c u l a t e d or u n n o t i c e d ( J o n e s e t . a l . 1 9 8 9 : 1 3 2 ) . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g n e e d s the d i s c i p l i n e s of b u i l d i n g s h a r e d v i s i o n , m e n t a l m o d e l s , t e a m l e a r n i n g , and p e r s o n a l m a s t e r y to r e a l i z e its p o t e n t i a l . B u i l d i n g s h a r e d v i s i o n f o s t e r s a c o m m i t m e n t to t h e long t e r m . T h e p r o c e s s of i d e n t i f y i n g o n e ' s a s s u m p t i o n s and b e l i e f s forms and i n t e g r a l p a r t of r e f l e c t i n g on t h e p r a c t i c e . T e a m l e a r n i n g d e v e l o p s t h e s k i l l s of g r o u p s of p e o p l e to l o o k for t h e l a r g e r p i c t u r e t h a t lies b e y o n d i n d i v i d u a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . P e r s o n a l m a s t e r y f o s t e r s the p e r s o n a l m o t i v a t i o n to c o n t i n u a l l y l e a r n how our a c t i o n s affect our w o r l d . S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g e n a b l e s us to shift o u r m i n d s e t r e g a r d i n g t h e way we p e r c e i v e o u r l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n and our w o r l d ( S e n g e 1990:
12).
not a p p r o p r i a t e for all s i t u a t i o n s . It is q u i t e c o n c e r n e d w i t h e x i s t i n g s y s t e m s b e c a u s e t h e p r o c e s s e x p l i c i t l y r e q u i r e s a c u r r e n t s y s t e m to be t a k e n into a c c o u n t . E v e n if the g o a l is to c r e a t e a new s y s t e m t h a t is not s i m i l a r to any e x i s t i n g s y s t e m , t h e r e is a l w a y s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y to c o m p a r e w i t h e x i s t i n g i d e a s or p r a c t i c e s if the c o n c e p t s are v i e w e d at a high e n o u g h l e v e l . SSM is g e a r e d t o w a r d s c o m p l e x , d y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t often i n c l u d e h u m a n f a c t o r s . The m e t h o d o l o g y is h e l p f u l w h e n o b j e c t i v e s need to be c l a r i f i e d , and p e r h a p s how the o b j e c t i v e s can be a t t a i n e d at a h i g h - l e v e l .
SSM is a u s e f u l p r o c e s s b e c a u s e of the f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s . It p r o v i d e s a s t r u c t u r e for m a k i n g s e n s e of d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m s . It h e l p s an o r g a n i s a t i o n to g a i n a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how its o b j e c t i v e s will be a c h i e v e d . For e x a m p l e , s e n i o r e x e c u t i v e s may h a v e o b j e c t i v e s for the o r g a n i s a t i o n , but t h e y may not have w o r k e d out w i t h the staff what a c t i v i t i e s need to be u n d e r t a k e n at all l e v e l s to a c h i e v e t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s . SSM can a l s o be u s e d to g e n e r a t e h a r d q u e s t i o n s , w h i c h can then be a p p r o a c h e d u s i n g m o r e s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g a p p r o a c h e s .
C h e c k l a n d s u g g e s t e d a s e v e n - s t a g e c y c l e for a n a l y s i s in the soft s y s t e m s m e t h o d o l o g y . In s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g p r o b l e m s can be b r o a d l y g r o u p e d into two a r e a s : i l l - d e f i n e d and w e l l - d e f i n e d p r o b l e m s . T h o s e r e f e r r e d to as hard p r o b l e m s are w e l l - d e f i n e d p r o b l e m s as c o m p a r e d to t h o s e c l a s s i f i e d as soft. T h e h a r d i s s u e s are of a d e t e r m i n i s t i c n a t u r e , w h e r e a s t h e soft i s s u e s are c o m p l e x and i n v o l v e h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n . The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the e l e m e n t s on soft i s s u e s can be q u i t e c o m p l e x and not easy to f o l l o w for t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r . The d y n a m i c n a t u r e of t h e s y s t e m m a k e s it very d i f f i c u l t to p r e d i c t .
The 1975 v e r s i o n is r a t h e r bold and it g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t it is a s e q u e n t i a l s e v e n s t a g e s p r o c e s s t h a t m u s t be f o l l o w e d to the l e t t e r . Peter C h e c k l a n d i n t r o d u c e d t h e new v e r s i o n in 1 9 8 8 . In t h i s v e r s i o n , the SSM is an i t e r a t i v e l e a r n i n g c y c l e t h a t i d e a l l y n e v e r s t o p s ( B u l o w 1989). A l s o C h e c k l a n d i n t r o d u c e d t h e s t r e a m of c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s , w h i c h has t h r e e o t h e r t y p e s of a n a l y s i s to be c o n s i d e r e d in o r d e r to s t r u c t u r e the p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n c o r r e c t l y . T h i s a n a l y s i s w i l l be i m p l e m e n t e d in the f i n d i n g out s t a g e , w h i c h i n v o l v e s g e t t i n g m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the s y s t e m p o l i t i c s and p o w e r s t r u c t u r e . H o w e v e r t h e new v e r s i o n m a i n t a i n e d t h e m a i n c o n c e p t s of t h e s e v e n s t a g e s of S S M . The s e v e n s t a g e s are now i m p l e m e n t e d w i t h i n the new S S M . To see t h i s , we can have a look at the new d e s c r i p t i o n of the SSM p r o c e s s , w h i c h has the f o l l o w i n g p h a s e s :
1. U n d e r s t a n d i n g r e a l w o r l d s i t u a t i o n of c o n c e r n ( s t a g e s 1 and 2 in C h e c k l a n d ' s 1975 v e r s i o n ) .
2. To d e v e l o p r e l e v a n t s y s t e m s of p u r p o s e f u l a c t i v i t y ( s t a g e s 3,4 and 5 in C h e c k l a n d ' s 1975 v e r s i o n )
3. C o m p a r e t h e s e r e l e v a n t s y s t e m s w i t h the real w o r l d and s u g g e s t d i f f e r e n t a c t i o n s to i m p r o v e the p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n ( s t a g e 6 in C h e c k l a n d ' s 1975 v e r s i o n )
4. I m p l e m e n t the a g r e e d a c t i o n s ( s t a g e 7 in C h e c k l a n d ' s 1975 v e r s i o n ) In 1975 P e t e r C h e c k l a n d i n t r o d u c e d the t r a d i t i o n a l SSM m e t h o d o l o g y w h i c h was c o m p o s e d of s e v e n s t a g e s ( W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 2 - 4 ) .
T h e s e s t a g e s are l i s t e d as f o l l o w s : 1. The p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n u n s t r u c t u r e d 2. The p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n s t r u c t u r e d 3. Root d e f i n i t i o n s of r e l e v a n t s y s t e m s 4. C o n c e p t u a l m o d e l s
5. C o m p a r i s o n of s t a g e 4 and s t a g e 2 6. I d e n t i f y f e a s i b l e a n d d e s i r a b l e c h a n g e s 7. The p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n s t r u c t u r e d
8. A c t i o n to i m p r o v e t h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n 4.3.1 The Problem Situation
The s i t u a t i o n n e e d s to be d e f i n e d , a l t h o u g h it is not a d v i s a b l e to q u i c k l y c o n f i n e t h e d e f i n i t i o n of the p r o b l e m . The s i t u a t i o n t h a t p r e v a i l s can be a p p r o a c h e d from a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t t a k e s into c o n s i d e r a t i o n its c o m p l e x i t y . The t o o l s t h a t may be u s e d at t h i s s t a g e of s i t u a t i n g t h e p r o b l e m may not n e c e s s a r i l y be t h e s a m e . A s y s t e m s a n a l y s t n e e d s to i d e n t i f y his \ her a s s u m p t i o n s in t e r m s of i d e n t i f y i n g the p r o b l e m . T h e a s s u m p t i o n s held by an a n a l y s t can p r e d e t e r m i n e t h e o u t c o m e and c l o u d t h e i s s u e s . T h e r e f o r e it is c r u c i a l at t h i s s t a g e to be able to i d e n t i f y o n e ' s a s s u m p t i o n s in o r d e r to t a k e p e r s p e c t i v e . If o n e ' s a s s u m p t i o n s are r e d u c t i o n i s t in n a t u r e t h a t will s u r e l y h a v e an i n f l u e n c e on how the s y s t e m is p e r c e i v e d . Our p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t we h a v e t a k e n in a n a l y z i n g t h e p r o b l e m can l i m i t our a p p r o a c h e s to a p r o b l e m .
Ideal Concept!
Figure 4. 1 The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the p e r c e i v e d w o r l d and p e o p l e ' s i d e a s ( W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 5 ) .
4.3.2 Problem Situation Unstructured
The p u r p o s e of t h i s s t a g e is to gain a g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g and a w i d e r view of t h e p r o b l e m . I n f o r m a t i o n is g a t h e r e d a b o u t who is i n v o l v e d , w h a t t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s of the s i t u a t i o n a r e , w h a t the o r g a n i s a t i o n s s t r u c t u r e s a r e , and w h a t p r o c e s s e s are g o i n g on. A l s o in t h i s p h a s e , the SSM p r a c t i t i o n e r in his efforts to gain a g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n , m u s t u n d e r s t a n d the o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s c u l t u r e and the i n t e r n a l p o l i c i e s . T h i s u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s t a l k i n g to o r g a n i s a t i o n m e m b e r s and r e a d i n g as m u c h as p o s s i b l e of the o r g a n i s a t i o n d o c u m e n t s . The p r a c t i t i o n e r will d e c i d e w h a t q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d be a s k e d to g a i n b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d w h o s h o u l d be a s k e d i n t e n s i v e l y .
The p r o c e d u r e for t h i s p h a s e will i n c l u d e the f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s :
1. G a t h e r and e x a m i n e as much as p o s s i b l e from the a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n .
2. L e a r n as m u c h as p o s s i b l e a b o u t who and w h a t is i m p o r t a n t in the o r g a n i s a t i o n .
3. U n d e r s t a n d as much as p o s s i b l e the o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s s p e c i f i c l a n g u a g e . 4. Pay c l o s e a t t e n t i o n to the i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t how t h i n g s are done in
the o r g a n i s a t i o n ( W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 4 ) .
T h e r e are no s p e c i f i c or p r e d e f i n e d t o o l s to be u s e d in t h i s s t a g e . The only t o o l is t h e SSM p r a c t i t i o n e r s e n s e s and e x p e r i e n c e and it is up to him to d e c i d e w h a t t y p e of q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d be a s k e d , w h o m to ask, and what d o c u m e n t s a n d m a t e r i a l s he s h o u l d r e a d to u n d e r s t a n d the o r g a n i s a t i o n l a n g u a g e . At t h e end of t h i s s t a g e t h e o u t p u t s will be in t h e form of a c l e a r i d e a of w h a t is g o i n g on in the o r g a n i s a t i o n , what p r o c e s s e s are i n v o l v e d
Would be improves Of the problem situation
The situation as a culture Analysis of the intervention"' Social system analysis
Political system analysis Compare to
-tn
cultural analysis
Differences between models And real world
Changes: systematically desired '*" and culturally feasible
. 1
Action to improve the situation
Logic-based stream of analysis
Figure 4.2 T h e t w o strands of version of S S M , (Wilson 2 0 0 1 : 9 ) .
w i t h i n t h e s i t u a t i o n , w h a t s p e c i f i c t a s k s and i s s u e s are i m p o r t a n t and a g e n e r a l s a t i s f a c t i o n of u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h i n g is to h a v e a file t h a t c o n t a i n s all of t h e s e n o t e s b e s i d e any o t h e r c o m m e n t s t h a t the p r a c t i t i o n e r m i g h t w a n t to a d d , and to keep this file as a r e f e r e n c e to go b a c k to it when it is n e c e s s a r y in the l a t e r s t a g e s .
4.3.3 Problem Situation Structured
This s t a g e h e l p s to s t r u c t u r e and e x p r e s s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n to e n a b l e and f a c i l i t a t e t h e a n a l y s i s t h a t will f o l l o w e s p e c i a l l y in s t a g e 3 when you c h o o s e r e l e v a n t s y s t e m s . The p r o c e d u r e for t h i s p h a s e can be b a s e d on the p r a c t i t i o n e r j u d g m e n t but the b a s i c r u l e is not to t r u s t your j u d g m e n t 1 0 0 % , but r a t h e r use o t h e r t o o l s to h e l p you get b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n . T h e s e t o o l s will i n v o l v e o t h e r a n a l y s e s , such as a n a l y s i s one ( a n a l y s i s of the i n t e r v e n t i o n ) , a n a l y s i s t w o ( s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s ) , a n a l y s i s t h r e e ( p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s ) , and the r i c h p i c t u r e a n a l y s i s (Wilson 2001:5).
4.3.4 Analysis One: Intervention Analysis
It is u s e f u l in t h i n k i n g of the i n t e r v e n t i o n of a p r o b l e m as i t s e l f b e i n g p r o b l e m a t i c . In t h i s a n a l y s i s we have to t h i n k of t h r e e r o l e s s e p a r a t e l y , the first one is the r o l e of the c l i e n t : w h i c h i n v o l v e s w h o is the c l i e n t and w h a t a r e t h e a s p i r a t i o n s of t h i s c l i e n t . The s e c o n d r o l e is the role of the p r o b l e m s o l v e r , w h i c h i n v o l v e s who is t h e p r o b l e m s o l v e r , what are the a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s , and w h a t are the c o n s t r a i n t s . The t h i r d and last role is t h e r o l e of t h e p r o b l e m o w n e r , w h i c h a l s o i n v o l v e s who is the p r o b l e m o w n e r and w h a t are t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s p r o b l e m o w n e r . We can c o n d u c t a n a l y s i s one by d o i n g the f o l l o w i n g s t e p s :
1. Define t h e c l i e n t ( t h e i n d i v i d u a l who c a u s e s t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n to t a k e p l a c e )
2. D e f i n e t h e ' w o u l d - b e p r o b l e m s o l v e r s ' ( t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who c o n d u c t t h e s t u d y )
3. The w o u l d - b e p r o b l e m s o l v e r t h e n m a k e up a l i s t of p o s s i b l e p r o b l e m s
For each of t h e p r o b l e m s on the l i s t , the w o u l d - b e p r o b l e m s o l v e r then n a m e s one or m o r e ' p r o b l e m o w n e r s ' : t h o s e p e o p l e w i t h an i n t e r e s t in the p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n as i d e n t i f i e d , and t h o s e w h o are l i k e l y to be a f f e c t e d by t h e p r o b l e m .
The t h i r d r o l e , w h i c h is the p r o b l e m o w n e r , is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e . It can be s o m e t i m e s v e r y u s e f u l to t h i n k of e a c h p r o b l e m in t h e view of who is t h e o w n e r of t h i s p r o b l e m t h a t e v e n t u a l l y g i v e s the SSM p r a c t i t i o n e r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e p r o b l e m s from the p e r s p e c t i v e s of t h e i r o w n e r s . One good s u g g e s t i o n is to d r a w a t a b l e t h a t c o n t a i n s p r o b l e m s in one c o l u m n and the o w n e r s in a n o t h e r ( W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 1 1-12).
4.3.5 Analysis Two: Social and Cultural Analysis
It is u s e d to k n o w t h e i n t e r n a l p o l i c i e s of t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n and to t h i n k of the p o s s i b l e m o t i v e s a n d f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of an i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s i n v o l v e s i n t e r n a l f r i e n d s h i p , p o s s i b l e a d v a n t a g e s to be g a i n e d or w e a k n e s s e s to be c o v e r e d . T h i s s t a g e i n v o l v e s t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h r e e i m p o r t a n t e n t i t i e s :
1. T h i n k a b o u t t h e r o l e s t h a t the v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d in the p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n p l a y .
2. T h i n k a b o u t t h e e x p e c t e d b e h a v i o r s of each r o l e .
3. T h i n k a b o u t t h e v a l u e s t h a t are u s e d to e v a l u a t e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of the i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d
4. T h e s e t h r e e e n t i t i e s form a c i r c l e , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t e a c h one of t h e m is d e f i n e d and t o t a l l y d e p e n d e n t on the o t h e r t w o as s h o w n in f i g u r e 4 . 3 .
Figure 4.3 Social and cultural analysis entities Source: (Wilson 2001:11-13).
4.3.6 Analysis Three: Political Analysis
It is a l s o a c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s but w i t h r e s p e c t of p o w e r . The SSM p r a c t i t i o n e r s h a v e to s t u d y the o r g a n i s a t i o n s t r u c t u r e in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e of p o w e r , and t h e i m p l i c i t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l b e l i e f s . The a n a l y s t a n a l y s e s the c u l t u r e t h a t p r e v a i l s in the o r g a n i s a t i o n , by o b s e r v i n g the b e h a v i o u r of m e m b e r s in r e l a t i o n to the e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h t h e y w o r k . S e c o n d l y , t h e a n a l y s t a l s o o b s e r v e s the way m e m b e r s a r e p e r f o r m i n g t h e i r d u t i e s w i t h i n t h e i r e x i s t i n g h i e r a r c h i e s in t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n and how t h e y r e l a t e to t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e s .
1. T h i n k i n g a b o u t w h a t m a k e s an i n d i v i d u a l p o w e r f u l w i t h i n the o r g a n i s a t i o n .
2. T h i n k i n g a b o u t w h a t t h e s y m b o l s of p o w e r a r e , for e x a m p l e : a c c e p t e d k n o w l e d g e ; a c e r t a i n t i t l e or p o s i t i o n , or a c c e s s to s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l s m i g h t be s y m b o l s of p o w e r w i t h i n an o r g a n i s a t i o n ( W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 13).
4.3.7 Rich Picture
Rich p i c t u r e s a r e a m e a n s of c a p t u r i n g as much i n f o r m a t i o n as p o s s i b l e r e l a t i n g to t h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n . A rich p i c t u r e c a n show b o u n d a r i e s , s t r u c t u r e , i n f o r m a t i o n f l o w s , and c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l s ( C h e c k l a n d
1 9 9 0 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) . But m o s t l y it s h o w s the H u m a n A c t i v i t y S y s t e m . T h i s is the e l e m e n t t h a t is not i n c l u d e d in such m o d e l s as d a t a flow d i a g r a m s or c l a s s m o d e l s . R i c h p i c t u r e s are a g r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n . The use of t h i s e x e r c i s e is d e p e n d e d on t h e a p p r o a c h of t h e a n a l y s t ; t h e r e is no m e t h o d t h a t is r e c o m m e n d e d as t h e b e s t for c o n d u c t i n g a rich p i c t u r e . The i m p o r t a n t t h i n g in a r i c h p i c t u r e is t h a t the p e o p l e will r e c o g n i z e t h i s rich p i c t u r e
as b e i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e s i t u a t i o n t h e y find t h e m s e l v e s in (see C h e c k l a n d l 9 9 9 : 4 5 ; C h e c k l a n d and S c h o l e s 1999: 3 1 7 ; W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 1 3 ) . 4.3.8 Formal and Informal Methods
The a n a l y s t can use many f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l m e t h o d s for c o l l e c t i n g a c t s . Some of the f o r m a l m e t h o d s a r e : work o b s e r v a t i o n s , i n t e r v i e w s , and w o r k s h o p s a n d d i s c u s s i o n s . Some of the d e t a i l s of t h e m e t h o d s are the f o l l o w i n g .
4 . 3 . 8 . 1 W o r k o b s e r v a t i o n
This i n v o l v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s to be t a k e n n a m e l y : 1. I d e n t i f y t a s k s p e r f o r m e d
2. I d e n t i f y t o o l s e m p l o y e d
3. E s t a b l i s h i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n p e o p l e \ s y s t e m s 4. P r o d u c e logs
5. " D a y - i n - t h e - l i f e - o f " d e s c r i p t i o n s 6. M a k e d r a w i n g s of s t r u c t u r e s \ l a y o u t s
7. C o l l e c t s a m p l e s of t o o l s u s e d to h a n d l e i n f o r m a t i o n 8. P e r f o r m p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n
9. V i d e o r e c o r d i n g s 4.3.8.2 Interviews
1. U n s t r u c t u r e d , i n f o r m a l ( " t e l l me w h a t you d o " )
2. S e m i - s t r u c t u r e d ( q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i t h o p e n - e n d e d a n s w e r s ) 3. H i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d ( q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i t h b o x e s to t i c k ) 4. C r i t i c a l i n c i d e n t s
5. Audio recording
4.3.8.3 Workshops and discussion 1. F u t u r e w o r k s h o p s
2. R e v i e w w o r k s h o p s
3. C o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n s w o r k s h o p s 4. M o c k - u p s , s i m u l a t i o n s , m i n d - g a m e s
( S o u r c e : W i l s o n 2001 : 1 5 ) . 4.4 Outputs
By t h e end of t h i s s t a g e ( p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n s t r u c t u r e d ) , you s h o u l d h a v e a rich p i c t u r e t h a t s u m s up the p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g , h a v e a list of p r o b l e m s and p r o b l e m o w n e r s , h a v e n o t e s on p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , and c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s , and m o s t i m p o r t a n t feel c o m f o r t a b l e a b o u t your u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n ( W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 1 5 ) .
4.4.1 Naming of Relevant Systems
Now s t a r t i n g from t h i s p h a s e , we get to the s y s t e m t h i n k i n g a c t i v i t i e s . This p h a s e is m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d a b o u t f o r m u l a t i o n of r o o t d e f i n i t i o n s for a n u m b e r of r e l e v a n t s y s t e m s . As a f a c i l i t a t o r t h e n at t h i s s t a g e you need to g u i d e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e m e s . The t h e m e s t h a t e m e r g e from the p r o b l e m are i d e n t i f i e d . T h i s is s i g n i f i c a n t for the f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e r o o t d e f i n i t i o n (see C h e c k l a n d and S c h o l e s ,
1999: 3 6 ; C h e c k l a n d , 1 9 9 9 : 1 6 4 ; W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 1 6 ) .
4.4.2 Root Definition
The r o o t d e f i n i t i o n is one way of d e s c r i b i n g w h a t is t h e s y s t e m , how the s y s t e m will w o r k , and why we need t h i s s y s t e m . C o n f u s i o n n e e d s to be a v o i d e d b e t w e e n t h e how h e r e w i t h the how of i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . The how in the r o o t d e f i n i t i o n s g i v e s a g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k of how t h i s can be i m p l e m e n t e d . H o w e v e r it does not i n c l u d e t h e d e f i n i t i o n of c e r t a i n t e c h n o l o g y and c e r t a i n s t e p s to be t a k e n . A r o o t d e f i n i t i o n is e x p r e s s e d as a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s t h a t t a k e s some e n t i t y as i n p u t , c h a n g e s or t r a n s f o r m s t h a t e n t i t y , and p r o d u c e s a new form of t h e e n t i t y as o u t p u t . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s h e r e is a key w o r d of S S M , it u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e s t h e a c t i o n of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d to t r a n s f o r m an i n p u t to an o u t p u t (see C h e c k l a n d 1990: 1 6 - 1 8 ; C h e c k l a n d and S c h o l e s l 9 9 9 : 3 6 - 3 8 ; W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) .
T h e r e are t w o k i n d s of r o o t d e f i n i t i o n s s u p p o r t e d in S S M : 1. P r i m a r y T a s k R o o t D e f i n i t i o n
2. I s s u e b a s e d R o o t D e f i n i t i o n .
P r i m a r y T a s k R o o t D e f i n i t i o n s c o n c e r n p r o c e s s e s , w h i c h the o r g a n i s a t i o n b e i n g s t u d i e d p e r f o r m s as a p a r t of t h e i r r e g u l a r a c t i v i t i e s (for e x a m p l e , in an oil c o m p a n y , the p r o c e s s of r e f i n e m e n t of the o i l ) . I s s u e B a s e d R o o t D e f i n i t i o n s c o n c e r n p r o c e s s e s , w h i c h are r a r e or o n e - off o c c u r r e n c e s ( s u c h as a m a n a g e m e n t r e s t r u c t u r i n g ) .
The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e can be h e l p f u l in d e r i v i n g r o o t d e f i n i t i o n s of r e l e v a n t s y s t e m s :
1. I d e n t i f y a p r o b l e m w h i c h s e e m s i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h for f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n
2. A p r o p e r l y s t r u c t u r e d r o o t d e f i n i t i o n has t h r e e p a r t s , r e f e r r e d to as w h a t , how and w h y .
3 The ' w h a t ' is the i m m e d i a t e aim of the s y s t e m , the ' h o w ' is the m e a n s of a c h i e v i n g t h a t a i m , and t h e ' w h y ' is the l o n g e r t e r m aim of the p u r p o s e f u l a c t i v i t y .
4. N a m i n g a s e r i e s of r e l e v a n t s y s t e m s u s i n g t h e C A T W O E f o r m u l a can c o m p o s e R o o t D e f i n i t i o n s .
5. ( S o u r c e : W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 1 7 )
4.4.3 CATWOE Analysis
In t h i s s t a g e a l s o , a C A T W O E a n a l y s i s is c o n d u c t e d . The b a s i c idea h e r e is a l s o to f o r m u l a t e and s t r u c t u r e the real w o r l d s i t u a t i o n in a m e a n i n g f u l way and a l s o to e n s u r e t h a t the RD w r i t t e n does r e a l l y r e p r e s e n t t h e r e l e v a n t s y s t e m . One of t h e m a j o r t a s k s in t h i s s t a g e is t h a t after t h e SSM p r a c t i t i o n e r p e r f o r m s b o t h the r o o t d e f i n i t i o n and the C A T W O E a n a l y s i s is to c o n s i d e r each of them w i t h r e s p e c t to the o t h e r o n e , if t h e r e is a n y k i n d of i n c o n s i s t e n c y t h e n t h i s is a c l u e t h a t t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g s e r i o u s l y w r o n g in the SSM p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n and he has to go b a c k and i t e r a t e to s t a g e s one and t w o . The C A T W O E s t a n d s for:
C u s t o m e r - t h e i m m e d i a t e b e n e f i c i a r i e s or v i c t i m s ; the b e n e f i c i a r y of the s y s t e m
A c t o r s - the p e o p l e who do the a c t i v i t i e s ; the p e o p l e who p e r f o r m t a s k s in the s y s t e m
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n - W h a t t h e e v e n t may a c h i e v e ; t h e c o r e a c t i v i t y of the s y s t e m , or t h e p r i m a r y c h a n g e b r o u g h t a b o u t as a r e s u l t
W e l t a n s c h a u u n g (or w o r l d v i e w ) - W h a t view of t h e w o r l d m a k e s t h i s d e f i n i t i o n m e a n i n g f u l ; t h e u n d e r l y i n g b e l i e f a b o u t t h e s y s t e m ; w h e t h e r it is the p r i o r i t y ; t h e t y p e of s y s t e m for the o b j e c t i v e of t h e s y s t e m
Owner - who can u l t i m a t e l y d i r e c t the e v e n t and c o u l d c l o s e it down or stop it from h a p p e n i n g ; the p e r s o n or body t h a t has the p o w e r to a p p r o v e / c a n c e l t h e s y s t e m
E n v i r o n m e n t - the e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t l i m i t what we m i g h t do. (see C h e c k l a n d and S c h o l e s , 1 9 9 9 : 3 5 - 3 6 ; C h e c k l a n d , 1999:
2 2 4 - 2 2 5 ; W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 1 7 - 1 8; Bob W i l l i a m s 2 0 0 1 ; C o u p n e , e t . a l : 1 2-1 4 ) .
4.4.4 Conceptual Model
The r o o t d e f i n i t i o n s r e p r e s e n t an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r s p e c t i v e of what the b u s i n e s s \ s y s t e m is t r y i n g to a c h i e v e . The n e x t s t a g e , a l s o in the s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g s t r a n d , is t o p r o p o s e an i d e a l view of t h e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d in o r d e r to r e a l i s e t h a t p e r s p e c t i v e . At t h e m o m e n t , the model d o e s not f o l l o w w h a t is h a p p e n i n g - it is not a n a l y s i n g the real w o r l d y e t . At t h e i n i t i a l d r a w i n g , t h e r e s h o u l d not be t o o many a c t i v i t i e s s h o w n , s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n five and t e n are s u f f i c i e n t . Each a c t i v i t y c o u l d be d e c o m p o s e d in more d e t a i l l a t e r .
The c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l has a v e r y s i m p l e n o t a t i o n - t h e a c t i v i t y i t s e l f is shown as a b u b b l e , w i t h the a c t i v i t y n a m e d (use an i m p e r a t i v e verb to d e n o t e t h e a c t i v i t y ) and a line t h a t l i n k s it w i t h t h e o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s . The first set of a c t i v i t i e s r e f e r s to p u r e l y o p e r a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s , t h a t is, t h o s e n e e d e d to p e r f o r m t h e t a s k i d e n t i f i e d in t h e r o o t d e f i n i t i o n . In a s y s t e m t h e c o m p o n e n t p a r t s are i n t e r c o n n e c t e d , so t h a t a c h a n g e to one p a r t will a f f e c t t h e o t h e r p a r t s . Not only t h i s , b u t the p r o b l e m d o m a i n i t s e l f is a s u b s y s t e m of s e v e r a l l a r g e r s y s t e m s - c h a n g e s in one will affect our d o m a i n as w e l l .
A l t h o u g h C h e c k l a n d c o i n e d the t e r m Soft S y s t e m s M e t h o d o l o g y , it is not s t r i c t l y a m e t h o d o l o g y . It does not p r e s c r i b e a r i g i d s e r i e s of s t e p s that m u s t be f o l l o w e d s c r u p u l o u s l y . R a t h e r , it s u g g e s t s a f r a m e w o r k for e n q u i r y , w i t h a n u m b e r of r e c o m m e n d e d t e c h n i q u e s . The end r e s u l t is an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m d o m a i n so t h a t a h a r d s t u d y can t h e n be a p p l i e d to s p e c i f y a s o l u t i o n .
The c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l is t h e last of t h e t e c h n i q u e s r e c o m m e n d e d by C h e c k l a n d . After t h e m o d e l s (one per r o o t d e f i n i t i o n ) are c o m p l e t e d , they are c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e r e a l w o r l d a c t i v i t i e s to s e e w h e t h e r or not the p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e b e i n g met, and w h e r e t h e r e a r e d i s c r e p a n c i e s . This c o m p a r i s o n can be c a r r i e d out in many w a y s : i n t e r v i e w i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e a c t o r s , d o c u m e n t i n g the c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s , or b e n c h m a r k i n g , to n a m e j u s t t h r e e . T h i s is how t h e d i a g n o s i s of t h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n is c a r r i e d out.
The p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n : t h i s is the s t a t u s quo b e f o r e t h e s t u d y , and at the s t a r t of the s t u d y . D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , the a n a l y s t (or p r o b l e m - s o l v e r ) will b e c o m e p a r t of t h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n in o r d e r to o b s e r v e it as fully as p o s s i b l e , r e m e m b e r i n g t h a t h i s \ h e r p r e s e n c e t h e r e will h a v e its own i m p a c t . T h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n e x p r e s s e d : h a v i n g s t u d i e d as much of t h e p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n as is f e a s i b l e , the a n a l y s t e x p r e s s e s in d i a g r a m m a t i c form w h a t s\he u n d e r s t a n d s is h a p p e n i n g . T h i s w i l l i n c l u d e a s p e c t s of the H u m a n A c t i v i t y S y s t e m ( H A S ) . C h e c k l a n d r e c o m m e n d s a rich p i c t u r e to a c h i e v e t h i s , but mind m a p s , h e r r i n g b o n e d i a g r a m s and o t h e r t o o l s can be u s e d i n s t e a d . H o w e v e r , t e c h n i q u e s from h a r d s y s t e m s such as d a t a flow d i a g r a m s or o b j e c t m o d e l s are not s u f f i c i e n t l y v e r s a t i l e or ' r i c h ' in the r i c h p i c t u r e , t h e r e will be 11 root d e f i n i t i o n s d e r i v e d .
C o n c e p t u a l m o d e l : t h i s is an i d e a l s c h e m a t i c for e a c h a c t o r \ s t a k e h o l d e r If one s t a k e h o l d e r h a s a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e n t h e r e m u s t b e , in p r i n c i p l e , a set of a c t i v i t i e s to be p e r f o r m e d t h a t w i l l m e e t the p e r s p e c t i v e . The c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l is a s i m p l e d i a g r a m t h a t r e p r e s e n t s the a c t i v i t i e s . T h e r e w i l l be one c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l d r a w n for each root d e f i n i t i o n .
C o m p a r i s o n of 2 and 4: t h i s r e t u r n s us to t h e ' r e a l w o r l d ' . The ideal view in t h e c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l is c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e a c t i v i t i e s a c t u a l l y in p l a c e , and any m i s m a t c h i d e n t i f i e d as a ' p r o b l e m ' r a t h e r t h a n the s y m p t o m . C h e c k l a n d d o e s not p r e s c r i b e any one t e c h n i q u e for m a k i n g t h i s c o m p a r i s o n ; t h a t is left to t h e a n a l y s t . C o m p a r i s o n of 2 and 4: t h i s r e t u r n s us to t h e ' r e a l w o r l d ' . The ideal view in t h e c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l is c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e a c t i v i t i e s a c t u a l l y in p l a c e , and any m i s m a t c h i d e n t i f i e d as a ' p r o b l e m ' r a t h e r t h a n the s y m p t o m . C h e c k l a n d does not p r e s c r i b e any one t e c h n i q u e for m a k i n g t h i s c o m p a r i s o n ; t h a t is left to the a n a l y s t . T h e f i n a l t w o s t a g e s , 6 and 7, are c l o s e r to the work of t r a d i t i o n a l / h a r d s y s t e m s a n a l y s t s . P o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s are e v a l u a t e d and then d e s i g n e d (see C h e c k l a n d 1 9 9 9 : 1 6 9 - 1 7 4 ; C o u p r i e e t . a l . 1 9 9 9: 12;
W i l l i a m s , 1; W i l s o n 2 0 0 1 : 1 8 ) .
FINDING OUT
STAGE 1 The problem situation
STAGE 2