A S Y S T E M S A P P R O A C H TO I Q M S I M P L E M E N T A T I O N IN V U L I N D L E L A C I R C U I T : A STUDY IN R E F L E C T I O N IN V U L I N D L E L A W E S T W A R D
BY
B O N G A N I S I B U S I S O M C H U N U
MEd ( U n i v e r s i t y of N a t a l )
S u b m i t t e d in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s of the d e g r e e of M a s t e r of C o m m e r c e in S t r a t e g i c P r o j e c t L e a d e r s h i p and
M a n a g e m e n t in the
F a c u l t y of M a n a g e m e n t S t u d i e s At the L e a d e r s h i p C e n t r e , U n i v e r s i t y of K w a z u l u N a t a l
O c t o b e r 2 0 0 6
A B S T R A C T
The s t u d y r e v i e w s t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and IQMS in V u l i n d l e l a C i r c u i t from 2003 to 2 0 0 6 . The s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g a p p r o a c h and Soft S y s t e m s M e t h o d o l o g y s e r v e d as a p o i n t of l e v e r a g e in i d e n t i f y i n g p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s b e s e t t i n g the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S . The use of s y s t e m s t o o l s p r o v i d e d t h e m e a n s for c r e a t i n g d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n t h e f a c i l i t a t o r and the S M T m e m b e r s and p r i n c i p a l s . The s t u d y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e use of the s y s t e m s m a p s , s p r a y d i a g r a m s , i c e b e r g t o o l , b r a i n w r i t i n g and rich p i c t u r e s in s u r f a c i n g t h e a s s u m p t i o n s and b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e f a i l u r e of DAS and I Q M S . W i t h t h i s a p p r o a c h , SMTs and p r i n c i p a l s d e v e l o p e d t h e i r i d e a s a b o u t t h e way t h e y c o u l d i m p l e m e n t DAS and I Q M S .
S y s t e m s t h i n k i n g p r o v i d e d a p e r s p e c t i v e for a p p r o a c h i n g the p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s . A c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l for DAS and IQMS e v o l v e d t h o u g h t h e c o l l a b o r a t i v e e f f o r t s of SMT m e m b e r s and p r i n c i p a l s . A d e v e l o p m e n t a l and h o l i s t i c m o d e l e v o l v e d from t h i s p r o c e s s of s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t . A new way of t h i n k i n g a b o u t p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s is p r e s e n t e d to p a r t i c i p a n t s . A p r o c e s s of d i a l o g u e set t h e s t a g e f o r . s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t . N o t a b l e i m p r o v e m e n t s a r e h i g h l i g h t e d as i n d i c a t o r s of i m p r o v e m e n t d u r i n g the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S . The a p p r o a c h p r o m o t e s a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n , d i a l o g u e , r e f l e c t i o n and c o n t i n u o u s i n q u i r y and a s h a r e d v i s i o n in the f o r m u l a t i o n of c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l s .
D E C L A R A T I O N
The s t u d y d e s c r i b e d in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n was c a r r i e d out in the V u l i n d l e l a C i r c u i t and V u l i n d l e l a W e s t W a r d , from 2 0 0 3 to 2 0 0 6 , u n d e r s u p e r v i s i o n of Stan H a r d m a n .
This s t u d y r e p r e s e n t s o r i g i n a l work by the a u t h o r and has not o t h e r w i s e b e e n s u b m i t t e d in any form for any d e g r e e or d i p l o m a to any u n i v e r s i t y . W h e r e use has b e e n made of t h e w o r k of o t h e r s it is duly a c k n o w l e d g e d in t h e t e x t .
S u b m i t t e d by: ...&.'$: Wlrf^4.!"*.?!..
D a t e i.$l.*.?J~h
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
I wish to thank Stan Hardman for his supervision and help in this dissertation.
I appreciate the permission given to involve the Vulindlela Circuit West Ward principals and School Management Teams and the encouragement from the District Director J.B. Mazibuko.
I would have never been able to finish this thesis without the
almost endless support and tolerance of my family, Dudu (my wife), and children Mfundo, Thandeka and Thando.
Many thanks to University of Kwazulu Natal library staff.
Many thanks to Zibuse Nzimande for his help in typing and editing the text, not to mention the inputs from TT Bhengu.
Thanks to all who supported me in prayers; who is our wisdom, understanding, knowledge, Jesus Christ.
T a b l e of c o n t e n t s
CHAPTER 1 1 1.GENERAL OVERVIEW. 1
1.1 Orientation to the study 1
1.2 Introduction 1 1.3 Stating the problem 2
1.4 The Present Study: Reasons for Undertaking the Study 4
1.5 Possible Value of the Study 5 1.6 General Layout of the Study 5
1.7 Summary 6
CHAPTER 2 7 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Understanding Reflection 7
2.3 Teacher Appraisal 12 2.4 Performance Evaluation 13 2.5 Appraisal and Evaluation 13 2.6. Forms of Evaluation 14 2.7 Performance Measurement 15 2.8 Professional Development 15 2.9 Norms and Standards for Teachers 16
2.10 Staff Development 16 2. HThe Mentor Model 17 2.12 Model ofSEM | Principal 17
2.13 Monitoring 18 2.14 Clustering 18 2.15 School Improvement 18
2.1.6 School Development 19
2.17 Summary 19
CHAPTER 3 21 3. SYSTEMS THNKING 21
3.1. Introduction 21 3.2 System thinking 21 3.3 What is a system ? 21 3.4 What is system thinking ? 22
3.5 Drawing a boundary 23
3.6 Perspective 24 3.7 Difference between a difficulty and messy situation 24
3.8 Hard and soft system 25 3.9 Points of leverage 25 3.10 Learning Organisation 25 3.11 Dialogue and the learning Organisation 26
3.12 Learning 27 3.13 Summary 29
CHAPTER 4 30 4. METHODOLOGY 30 4.1 Introduction 30 4.2 Systems Tools and Disciplines for Learning 31
4.2.1 The events, pattern, structure pyramid 31
4.2.2 Mental models 32 4.2.3 Shared Vision 32 4.2.4 Team Learning 32 4.2.5 Personal Mastery 33 4.2.6 Points of leverage 33 4.2.7 Reflective Journal 33 4.3 Understanding Soft Systems Methodology 34
4.3.1. The Problem Situation 36 4.3.2 Problem Situation Unstructured 37
4.3.3 Problem Situation Structured 38 4.3.4 Analysis One: Intervention Analysis 39
4.3.5 Analysis Two: Social and Cultural Analysis 39
4.3.6 Analysis Three: Political Analysis 40
4.3.7 Rich Picture 41 4.3.8 Formal and Informal Methods 41
4 . 3 . 8 . 2 I n t e r v i e w s : 41 4 . 3 . 8 . 3 W o r k s h o p s a n d d i s c u s s i o n : 41
4.4 Outputs 41 4.4.1 Naming of Relevant Systems 42
4.4.2 Root Definition 42 4.4.3 CATWOE Analysis 43 4.4.4 Conceptual Model 43 4.5 Building the conceptual model 45
4.6 Formal System Thinking 46
4.7 Monitoring the System 47
4.8 Comparison 47 4.9 Definition of Desirable and Feasible Changes 50
4.10 Recommended Action 50 4.11 Critique of SSM 52 4.12 Role of Facilitator 52
4.13 Summary 53
CHAPTER 5 54 5.REFIECTIONS ON THE USE OF A SYSTEMS THINKING APPROACH 54
5.1 Introduction 54 5.2 Setting Boundaries in the analysis of the problem 54
5.3 Phases of Development 55 5.4 Development and Improvement 2003-2004 72
5.5 IQMS Implementation: 2004 75 5.6 IQMS Model formulated in 2006 76 5.7. IQMS Implementation Plan using SMM 76 5.8 Implementation Challenges in 2005 90 5.9 Implementation Challenges in 2006 94 5.10 Conceptual Model for IQMS 2006: Reviewed 99
5.11.Personal Vision 102 5.12 Organisational Structure 102
5.13 The Relationship between learning and systems thinking 102
5.14 Systems theory and the learning organisation 103
5.15 Coaching and Staff Development 104
5.16 Summary 105
CHAPTER 6 106 6. FINDINGS 106
6.1 Introduction 106 6.2 DAS : a developmental approach ... 106
6.3 IQMS : a holistic approach 107 6.4 Professional Development 109
6.5 Learnings I l l 6.6 Journals and Portfolios 113
6.7 Mental Models 113 6.8 Shared Vision 115 6.9 Systems Thinking 115 6.10 Summary 116
CHAPTER 7 117 7. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 117
7.1 Introduction 117 7.2 Limitations of the study 117
7.3 Implications arising from the study 118
7.4 Recommendations 119 7.5 Issues for further research 121
7.6 Conclusion 122 REFENCES 123 APPENDICES 129
A : IQMS observation instrument 130 B: Approval Letter to conduct study 135
List of figures
Figure 4.1: The Relationship between the perceived world and people's ideas 36
Figure 4.2: The two strands version of SSM 38 Figure 4.3: Social and cultural analysis entities 40 Figure 4.4: The Soft System Methodology 45 Figure 4.5: Basic components of the conceptual model 46
Figure 4.6: The conceptual model for a system used to estimate that current effort 51
Figure 5.1: The Learning Iceberg Tool 56 Figure 5.2: System Map for initiatives 57 Figure 5.3: Hard systems for DAS criteria 58 Figure 5.4: Systems Map for DAS criteria 59
Figure 5.5: Brainwriting tool 61 Figure 5.6: Spray diagram for failure of DAS programme 62
Figure 5.7: Hard Systems for DAS Cycle 67 Figure 5.8: Hard System for DAS model 68 Figure 5.9: Rich picture for DAS failure 70 Figure 5.10: Conceptual Models for DAS 72 Figure 5.11: Systems Diagram for Initiatives 77 Figure 5.12: Systems map representing Performance standards for educators 78
Figure 5.13: The Learning Iceberg Tool 79 Figure 5.14: Systems diagram Representing Performance Standards for Educators 80
Figure 5.15: Spray diagram for IQMS failure 81 Figure 5.16: Rich picture for IQMS failure 83 Figure 5.17: Spray diagram for Dysfunctional DSGs 93
Figure 5.18: Spray diagram for Poor Human Relations 95
Figure 5.19: Spray diagram for Dysfunctional Schools 96 Figure 5.20: Spray diagram for lack of strategic planning 98
List of tables
Table 4.1: Comparison table using SSM 49 Table 4.2: Comparison table for the system that estimates effort 49
Table 4.3: Problem and Problem owner 51 Table 5.1: Goals and Objectives for IQMS implementation 88
Table 5.2: Strategies and Tasks 89
A B B R E V I A T I O N S
C u s t o m e r s , A c t o r s , T r a n s f o r m a t i o n , W o r l d v i e w , O w n e r s , E n v i r o n m e n t ( C A T W O E )
D e v e l o p m e n t a l A p p r a i s a l S y s t e m ( D A S ) D e v e l o p m e n t S u p p o r t G r o u p ( D S G ) Head of D e p a r t m e n t ( H O D )
Human Activity Social System (HASS) In-service Training (INSET)
I n t e g r a t e d Q u a l i t y M a n a g e m e n t S y s t e m ( I Q M S ) J o i n t E x e c u t i v e T e a m ( J E T )
M a t r i c I m p r o v e m e n t P l a n ( M I P )
N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m S t a t e m e n t ( N C S ) O u t c o m e s B a s e d E d u c a t i o n ( O B E )
P e r s o n n e l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n M e a s u r e s ( P A M ) Post P r o v i s i o n i n g M o d e l ( P P M )
Post P r o v i s i o n i n g N o r m ( P P N )
Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS) Root D e f i n i t i o n ( R D )
S c h o o l D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n ( S D P ) School G o v e r n i n g B o d y ( S G B ) S c h o o l I m p r o v e m e n t P l a n ( S I P ) S c h o o l M a n a g e m e n t T e a m ( S M T )
South A f r i c a n D e m o c r a t i c T e a c h e r s ' Union ( S A D T U ) Soft S y s t e m s M e t h o d o l o g y ( S S M )
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of E d u c a t i o n M a n a g e m e n t ( S E M ) T o w a r d s E f f e c t i v e S c h o o l M a n a g e m e n t ( T E S M ) W h o l e S c h o o l E v a l u a t i o n ( W S E )
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL OVERVIEW
1.1 Orientation to the study
W o r k i n g as a S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of E d u c a t i o n M a n a g e m e n t ( S E M ) with 24 s c h o o l s in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t W a r d i n v o l v e d b e i n g p a r t of a s e l e c t e d t e a m in a T o w a r d s E f f e c t i v e S c h o o l M a n a g e m e n t ( T E S M ) p r o g r a m m e . T h e T E S M p r o g r a m m e w o r k e d in p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h t h e L e a d e r s h i p C e n t r e . The s e l e c t e d t e a m i n v o l v e d p r i n c i p a l s and S E M s . In 2 0 0 3 t h i s c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o led to a p r o g r a m m e for E d u c a t i o n L e a d e r s h i p w i t h a c c r e d i t a t i o n for a L e a d e r s h i p C e r t i f i c a t e . The p r o g r a m m e e x p o s e d us to a t w o - y e a r p r o g r a m m e of a c a d e m i c work w h i c h f o c u s e d a l s o on m o d u l e s for l e a r n i n g a n d c h a n g e , s c h o o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s , s c h o o l i m p r o v e m e n t and s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g . T h i s b e c a m e the t u r n i n g p o i n t in the way one a p p r o a c h e d work as a S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of E d u c a t i o n M a n a g e m e n t ( S E M ) in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t . T h e E d u c a t i o n L e a d e r s h i p c o u r s e r e q u i r e d t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s t r a n s f e r t h e a c q u i r e d s k i l l s and k n o w l e d g e i n t o t h e work e n v i r o n m e n t . For all the w r i t t e n a s s i g n m e n t s a n d g r o u p w o r k the r e q u i r e m e n t was t h a t it n e e d e d to be b a s e d on t h e w o r k s i t u a t i o n . The p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s in t h e c o n t e x t of work o f f e r e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s for e n g a g i n g w i t h the r e a l i t i e s of the f a i l u r e s in t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of p o l i c i e s . The c o l l e a g u e s in the T E S M p r o g r a m m e w o r k e d j o i n t l y in some of the a s s i g n m e n t s . The focus of w r i t t e n a s s i g n m e n t s was b a s e d on the r e f l e c t i o n s of w o r k i n g as a g r o u p , s h a r i n g the e x p e r i e n c e s of w o r k i n g in d i f f e r e n t work s i t u a t i o n s .
From 2003 o n w a r d s b e i n g an SEM i n v o l v e d a c h a n g i n g r o l e in c o n d u c t i n g d u t i e s due to the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e D e v e l o p m e n t a l A p p r a i s a l S y s t e m ( D A S ) in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t W a r d and I n t e g r a t e d Q u a l i t y M a n a g e m e n t S y s t e m ( I Q M S ) . T h i s s t u d y r e f l e c t s on some of the s e s s i o n s t h a t w e r e o b s e r v e d in the f a c i l i t a t i o n of p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n for DAS and I Q M S in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t W a r d . A shift in the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r o l e of w o r k i n g as SEM b e c a m e a focal p o i n t of the study d u r i n g t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of p o l i c i e s in c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n s . The c o u r s e w o r k p r o v i d e d t h e a c a d e m i c r i g o u r , a new p r a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h and a p a r a d i g m shift in e n g a g i n g w i t h c o m p l e x and d y n a m i c s c h o o l c o n t e x t s . The P e r s o n n e l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n M e a s u r e s ( P A M ) d o c u m e n t i d e n t i f i e s seven r o l e s of an e d u c a t o r , one of w h i c h is t h a t of a r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i t i o n e r . T h e s t u d y was b a s e d on u n d e r t a k i n g a r e f l e c t i v e a p p r o a c h w h i l s t u s i n g s y s t e m s t o o l s in the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and IQMS p o l i c i e s . The h i s t o r i c a l n a t u r e of the s t u d y i n v o l v e d a s e r i e s of w o r k s h o p s c o n d u c t e d w i t h SMT m e m b e r s and p r i n c i p a l s from 2 0 0 3 - 2 0 0 6 . T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s a l s o t o u c h on the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and IQMS and how t h e n a t u r e of work of the p r i n c i p a l and t h e SEM has c h a n g e d due to t h e s e p o l i c i e s .
1.2 Purpose Statement
The p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of t h i s s t u d y is to r e f l e c t on t h e e x p e r i e n c e of w o r k i n g as SEM d u r i n g the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of D e v e l o p m e n t A p p r a i s a l S y s t e m ( D A S ) and I n t e g r a t e d Q u a l i t y M e a s u r e m e n t S y s t e m ( I Q M S ) in V u l i n d l e l a C i r c u i t and V u l i n d l e l a W e s t W a r d from 2 0 0 3 to 2 0 0 6 . T h e study e x p l o r e s how t h e role of the s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g and soft s y s t e m s m e t h o d o l o g y c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e
f a c i l i t a t i o n of t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the p r o g r a m m e of DAS and I Q M S a m o n g s t t h e s c h o o l s in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t W a r d .
1.3 Stating the Problem
T h r e e d e c a d e s ago S a r a s o n o b s e r v e d and e x p r e s s e d a c o n c e r n a b o u t how the t e a c h e r s w e r e ill p r e p a r e d and not fully e q u i p p e d for t h e r e a l i t i e s of c l a s s r o o m life ( 1 9 7 1 : 5 5 ) . T h i s s t a t e m e n t can s t i l l be u t t e r e d a b o u t the s t a t e of our s y s t e m a n d t h e d y n a m i c s n a t u r e of t h e s c h o o l in w h i c h t h e e d u c a t o r s , S c h o o l M a n a g e m e n t T e a m ( S M T ) m e m b e r s and SEMs w o r k . The e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m is such a c o m p l e x s y s t e m of i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t need to be u n d e r s t o o d a l s o from the p e r s p e c t i v e of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g . The e d u c a t o r t h a t was p r e p a r e d o n e , t w o or t h r e e d e c a d e s ago c a n n o t be g u a r a n t e e d to c o p e w i t h t h e i s s u e s t h a t are c u r r e n t in our s c h o o l i n g s y s t e m . T h e o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t a c t o r s in t h e s c h o o l i n g s y s t e m are the S M T m e m b e r s and SEMs who h a v e a l s o b e e n c a u g h t up in t h i s web of c o m p l e x i t y a n d d y n a m i c c h a n g e t h a t is i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i r work s i t u a t i o n . In t h i s d e c a d e a l o n e t h e r e h a v e b e e n a t t e m p t s to b r i n g a b o u t s c h o o l r e f o r m in t h e c u r r i c u l u m , t e a c h i n g , a s s e s s m e n t , q u a l i t y of t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g , the t r a i n i n g and r e - t r a i n i n g of e d u c a t o r s , SMT m e m b e r s and SEMs in o r d e r to c o p e w i t h the l a t e s t c h a n g e s . This has been a d i f f i c u l t t e r r a i n f r a u g h t with a lot of t r i a l and e r r o r and p r o j e c t s t h a t w e r e l a c k i n g in s u s t a i n a b i l i t y .
The N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t i n t r o d u c e d R e s o l u t i o n No 4 M 9 9 8 c a l l e d D e v e l o p m e n t a l A p p r a i s a l S y s t e m ( D A S ) . T h e a t t e m p t s for the c a s c a d i n g of t h i s R e s o l u t i o n 4 M 9 9 8 w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l due to a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . T h e n in 2 0 0 3 the N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t and the t e a c h e r u n i o n s c o l l e c t i v e l y s i g n e d R e s o l u t i o n 8 \ 2 0 0 3 t h a t is I n t e g r a t e d Q u a l i t y M a n a g e m e n t S y s t e m ( I Q M S ) . In 2 0 0 4 a c o n c e r t e d effort was made to c a s c a d e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of I Q M S . T h e s e a t t e m p t s were u n s u c c e s s f u l due t o a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h e y e a r in A u g u s t 2 0 0 4 t h e r e w e r e t e a c h e r s t r i k e s a r o u n d t h e i s s u e of b a c k l o g s . In N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 4 t h e Q u a l i t y A s s u r a n c e d i r e c t o r a t e c a l l e d for an IQMS I n d a b a , w h e r e all t h e s t a k e h o l d e r s were c a l l e d to d i s c u s s the f a i l u r e s , c h a l l e n g e s and w o r k out a s t r a t e g y for i m p l e m e n t i n g I Q M S in 2 0 0 5 . All the s t a k e h o l d e r s a d o p t e d the p r o g r a m m e of a c t i o n for i m p l e m e n t i n g IQMS in 2 0 0 5 . At t h e b e g i n n i n g of 2005 the D i s t r i c t c o - o r d i n a t o r s for IQMS w e r e c a l l e d for a r e f r e s h e r c o u r s e in o r d e r to e m b a r k on an i n t e g r a t e d a p p r o a c h to t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of I Q M S a c r o s s the s c h o o l s of K w a z u l u - N a t a l .
M o t s w a k a e ( 2 0 0 6 : 2 1 5 ) r e p o r t s t h a t in t h e e a r l y 1990s B o t s w a n a e x p e r i e n c e d t e a c h e r s t r i k e s w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t e a c h e r a p p r a i s a l and its link w i t h s a l a r y i n c r e a s e and pay p r o g r e s s i o n . In 1992 the B o t s w a n a E d u c a t i o n M i n i s t r y i n t r o d u c e d t h e T e a c h e r P e r f o r m a n c e A p p r a i s a l : Form T M S 3\4 a i m i n g at p o r t r a y i n g a n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g , v a l i d and c o m p r e h e n s i v e s y s t e m . The I n t e g r a t e d Q u a l i t y M a n a g e m e n t S y s t e m ( I Q M S ) is u s e d to e v a l u a t e t e a c h e r s and a l l o w s e d u c a t o r s to a s s e s s t h e i r p e e r s ' w o r k by o b s e r v i n g t h e m t e a c h i n g . In a S u n d a y T i m e s a r t i c l e of 2 A p r i l 2 0 0 6 , t h e r e p o r t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t e a c h e r s are g i v i n g t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s top m a r k s for c l a s s r o o m p e r f o r m a n c e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e s u l t s of l e a r n e r s are d i s m a l . The N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t is a d m i t t i n g t h a t its r a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t for t e a c h e r s is not w o r k i n g w e l l . The N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l D u n c a n H i n d l e in his r e p o r t t o t h e p o r t f o l i o c o m m i t t e e a d m i t t e d t h a t m o s t t e a c h e r s had g i v e n t h e i r p e e r s good m a r k s , w h i c h w e r e not w a r r a n t e d by l e a r n e r p e r f o r m a n c e . He i n d i c a t e d t h a t the N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n M i n i s t e r P a n d o r was c o n s i d e r i n g an e x t e r n a l m o n i t o r i n g a g e n c y to e v a l u a t e t e a c h e r s . In t h i s r e g a r d K w a z u l u - N a t a l ' s S u p e r i n t e n d e n t - G e n e r a l Dr. C. L u b i s i said t h a t his d e p a r t m e n t had e x p r e s s e d the need to w o r k with t e a c h e r u n i o n s to d i s c u s s the ' a b e r r a t i o n s ' of I Q M S . One of the p r o b l e m s , a c c o r d i n g to L u b i s i , was t h a t I Q M S s e r v e d as b o t h an e v a l u a t i o n t o o l for s a l a r y p r o g r e s s i o n and, at the s a m e t i m e , d e v e l o p m e n t a l t o o l for t e a c h e r s . L i n d a R o s e , t h e W e s t e r n C a p e ' s d i r e c t o r of q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e , s a i d t h e r e w e r e g l i t c h e s in the s y s t e m as t h i s was t h e first y e a r it had b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d . He a d d e d , ' o u r view is t h a t it t a k e s a b o u t t h r e e y e a r s for s u c h a s y s t e m to o p e r a t e at an o p t i m u m l e v e l ' . M p u m a l a n g a ' s MEC for E d u c a t i o n , S i p h o s e z w e M a s a n g o , said t h e p r a c t i c e of t e a c h e r s i n f l a t i n g t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s ' s c o r e s d e p r i v e d t h e d e p a r t m e n t of g e t t i n g a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the q u a l i t y of its m a n a g e r s . F r e e S t a t e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , Mafu R a k o m e t s i , said t h e i s s u e of t e a c h e r s b e i n g l e n i e n t w i t h one a n o t h e r ' c a n n o t be r u l e d o u t ' b e c a u s e t h e y do not w a n t to offend t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s . The S o u t h African D e m o c r a t i c T e a c h e r s ' U n i o n ( S A D T U ) c r i t i c i s e d t h e l i n k i n g of the p a y m e n t s to a s s e s s m e n t . John L e w i s , the m e d i a o f f i c e r for S A D T U , i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e m a j o r p r o b l e m s a r o u n d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of I Q M S , a d d i n g t h a t t h e s y s t e m n e e d e d to be r e v i e w e d , ( S u n d a y T i m e s , 2 A p r i l 2 0 0 6 : 6 ) . T h i s is an i n d i c a t i o n of w o r k i n g w i t h a h u m a n a c t i v i t y s y s t e m t h a t is h i g h l y c o m p l e x . For the p o l i c y m a k e r s , I Q M S a p p e a r s to be a q u i c k fix for s o m e of the p r o b l e m s b e s e t t i n g t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m . G u l t i g e t . a l . ( 1 9 9 9 ) in t h e i r a n a l y s i s of the u s e of s u c h c o n c e p t s as ' l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n s ' , ' s e l f - r e l i a n t s c h o o l s ' , ' s e l f m a n a g i n g s c h o o l s ' , ' s c h o o l e f f e c t i v e n e s s ' , ' s c h o o l i m p r o v e m e n t ' and ' w h o l e s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t ' , are r a t h e r c o n c e r n e d at the lack of a t t e m p t s to o p e r a t i o n a l i s e a n d i m p l e m e n t t h e s e c o n c e p t s at s c h o o l level (in N d h l o v u , 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 1 : 5 3 ) .
In view of t h e a b o v e g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w , the s t u d y has b e e n c o n f i n e d to the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s :
1. W h a t w e r e t h e e x p e r i e n c e s in the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS in 2 0 0 3 - 2004 and t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of IQMS in 2005 to 2 0 0 6 ?
2. How w e r e t h e s y s t e m ' s t o o l s u t i l i s e d d u r i n g the w o r k s h o p s with the SMT m e m b e r s a n d p r i n c i p a l s ?
3. How was the I Q M S p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t e d in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t W a r d ? 4. W h a t m o d e l s e m e r g e d d u r i n g the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and IQMS
in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t ?
5. W h a t can be e x p l o r e d from the use of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g in t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t of SMT m e m b e r s and p r i n c i p a l s ? 6. W h a t w e r e t h e l e a r n i n g s from the IQMS t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s ? 1.4 The Present Study: Reasons for Undertaking the Study
The main r e a s o n for c o n d u c t i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h is m o t i v a t e d by t h e i n v o l v e m e n t as a S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of E d u c a t i o n M a n a g e m e n t ( S E M ) in V u l i n d l e l a C i r c u i t in t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S . The d u t i e s i n v o l v e w o r k i n g w i t h t w e n t y - f o u r s c h o o l s in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t as an SEM in p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d m o n i t o r i n g . The s t u d y a t t e m p t s to a c h i e v e the f o l l o w i n g , n a m e l y t o ;
1. R e f l e c t on t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e e d u c a t o r s in w o r k i n g with r e s e a r c h e r in t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S
2. D r a w from t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e m o d e l for DAS and I Q M S
3. I n d i c a t e t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e DAS and I Q M S m o d e l s w e r e i m p l e m e n t e d in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t s c h o o l s
4. A n a l y s e t h e p a t t e r n s e m e r g i n g from the u s e of t h e s y s t e m s t o o l s 5. G i v e a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w of t h e e m e r g i n g p a t t e r n s d u r i n g the
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S 1.5 Possible Value of the Study
The s t u d y w i l l be of v a l u e in i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e s t r e n g t h s and s h o r t c o m i n g s in t h e c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e for t h e I Q M S i m p l e m e n t a t i o n in the V u l i n d l e l a W e s t s c h o o l s . T h e s t u d y will j u s t i f y t h e v a l u e of u s i n g a r e f l e c t i v e a p p r o a c h in a n a l y s i n g and g i v i n g m e a n i n g to p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . T h e m o d e l s f o r m u l a t e d by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s will be d i s c u s s e d in o r d e r to j u s t i f y the use of a soft s y s t e m s m e t h o d o l o g y in p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . B a s e d on the r e f l e c t i o n s a n d l e a r n i n g s from t h e e x p e r i e n c e , the s t u d y a i m s to a c h i e v e the f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s :
1. To p r o v i d e a h i s t o r i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S .
2. To r e c o r d the use of s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h in p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n in V u l i n d l e l a W e s t s c h o o l s .
3. To i l l u s t r a t e t h e m o d e l s for DAS and I Q M S t h a t w e r e f o r m u l a t e d t h r o u g h a c o l l a b o r a t i v e l e a r n i n g effort.
4. To b r i n g a b o u t a g e n e r a l a w a r e n e s s of t h e soft s y s t e m s m e t h o d o l o g y in the f a c i l i t a t i o n of c h a n g e .
5. To i n s p i r e p r a c t i t i o n e r s to c o n s i d e r the s t r e n g t h s i m p l i c i t in the use of a s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h .
It is e n v i s a g e d t h a t t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t will lead to a g r e a t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g and soft s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h e s in d e a l i n g with i s s u e s of p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n in s c h o o l s . The r e s e a r c h g i v e s s c o p e for t h e use of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g a p p r o a c h , c o m b i n e d w i t h an a c t i o n r e s e a r c h b a s e d p e r s p e c t i v e in the s c h o o l i n g s y s t e m .
S h o u l d t h i s s t u d y lead to the a w a r e n e s s of t h e v a l u e of soft s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h and r e f l e c t i o n on p r a c t i c e by e d u c a t o r s , a l b e i t p a r t i a l l y , the r e s e a r c h w i l l h a v e s u c c e e d e d , and t h u s c o n s i d e r e d j u s t i f i e d .
1.6 General Layout of the Study
In the s e v e n c h a p t e r s to f o l l o w the i n t e n t i o n is to d e v e l o p the s t u d y a l o n g the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s :
C h a p t e r One o u t l i n e s t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s t h a t b e s e t IQMS and o r i e n t a t e s t h e r e a d e r to the s t u d y . The c o m p l e x n a t u r e of t h e DAS and IQMS is e s t a b l i s h e d a n d the role t h a t is p l a y e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r in t h e work e n v i r o n m e n t .
C h a p t e r Two p r e s e n t s the r e v i e w e d l i t e r a t u r e , i n c l u s i v e of the c o n c e p t s on r e f l e c t i o n . The l a t t e r p a r t of the c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w of c o n c e p t s s u c h as a p p r a i s a l , p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t and e v a l u a t i o n . A r a n g e of c o n c e p t s r e l a t e d to the s c h o o l s y s t e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t and s c h o o l i m p r o v e m e n t are h i g h l i g h t e d . The d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of t h e s e c o n c e p t s was i n c l u d e d as p a r t of the t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k to d e m o n s t r a t e the c o m p l e x n a t u r e in w h i c h t h e DAS and I Q M S p o l i c i e s are w o r k i n g .
C h a p t e r T h r e e f o c u s e s on a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w of s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g . A v a r i e t y of c o n c e p t s are d e f i n e d and e x p l o r e d as p a r t of the t h e o r e t i c a l g r o u n d i n g for t h e s t u d y . T h i s p a r t of the c h a p t e r b u i l d s a c a s e for u s i n g the s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h . B a s e d on t h e g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n in c h a p t e r o n e , a s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h is e s p o u s e d in o r d e r to g a i n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e c o m p l e x n a t u r e of the p r o b l e m . The c h a p t e r i n c l u d e s t h e s y s t e m s t o o l s for use in c o n d u c t i n g t h e r e s e a r c h e n t e r p r i s e . C h a p t e r t h r e e b u i l d s a c a s e for the use of the s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h to t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S . The c h a p t e r e n d s w i t h i n s i g h t s to S e n g e ' s work w h i c h falls w i t h i n the s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g a p p r o a c h . T h i s c h a p t e r b r o a d l y i n t r o d u c e s t h e s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g in p r e p a r a t i o n for C h a p t e r F o u r w h i c h f o c u s e s on the Soft S y s t e m s M e t h o d o l o g y .
C h a p t e r F o u r p r o v i d e s a r e v i e w of the s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g a p p r o a c h g e n e r a l l y , and s p e c i f i c a l l y the Soft S y s t e m s M e t h o d o l o g y ( S S M ) , w h i c h i n f o r m s how s o m e of the s t e p s in t h i s m e t h o d w e r e u s e d to c o n d u c t the
s t u d y . C h e c k l a n d is t h e e x p o n e n t of t h i s S S M , and as p a r t of t h i s m e t h o d o l o g y , he p r o p o s e s a s e v e n s t a g e m o d e l .
C h a p t e r F i v e r e p o r t s on t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S , c o v e r i n g the p e r i o d 2 0 0 3 to 2 0 0 6 . T h e c h a p t e r i n c l u d e s i l l u s t r a t i o n s on the use of s y s t e m s t o o l s as one of the a l t e r n a t i v e w a y s in w h i c h s u c c e s s f u l p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n c a n be f a c i l i t a t e d . F u r t h e r m o r e it r e f l e c t s on some of the w o r k s h o p s c o n d u c t e d w i t h p a r t i c i p a n t s , t h a t i s , SMT m e m b e r s and p r i n c i p a l s in V u l i n d l e l a C i r c u i t and V u l i n d l e l a W e s t W a r d .
The S i x t h c h a p t e r a n a l y s e s the g e n e r a l f i n d i n g s b a s e d on the work c o v e r e d d u r i n g the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS in 2 0 0 3 - 2 0 0 4 and I Q M S in 2 0 0 5 - 2 0 0 6 in V u l i n d l e l a C i r c u i t and w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to V u l i n d l e l a W e s t .
The S e v e n t h c h a p t e r o u t l i n e s the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , l i m i t a t i o n s of the s t u d y , p r o p o s a l s for f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and c o n c l u s i o n s .
1.7 Summary
The a s p e c t s d e a l t w i t h in t h i s c h a p t e r i n v o l v e a p e r s o n a l p r o f i l e and b r i e f b a c k g r o u n d to t h e work e n v i r o n m e n t . I n c l u d e d in t h i s c h a p t e r is a l s o a r e v i e w of t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s s u r r o u n d i n g a p p r a i s a l s y s t e m s t h a t are a l s o m a n i f e s t i n g t h e m s e l v e s in I Q M S . A m o n g s t t h e e x a m p l e s c i t e d in t h i s c h a p t e r are the c u r r e n t p r o b l e m s t h a t w e r e e x p e r i e n c e d in South A f r i c a in t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of I Q M S . The key q u e s t i o n s for u n d e r t a k i n g t h e s t u d y h a v e b e e n c l e a r l y d e f i n e d and t h e key o b j e c t i v e s for t h e r e s e a r c h . The c h a p t e r g i v e s a b a c k g r o u n d to t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S as t h e p o l i c i e s t h a t were j o i n t l y f o r m u l a t e d by t h e N a t i o n a l d e p a r t m e n t w i t h the u n i o n s . The c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s for u n d e r t a k i n g t h e s t u d y h a v e b e e n c l a r i f i e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e c r i t i c a l r o l e of the r e s e a r c h e r .
This c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h e g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w of t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t b e s e t e d u c a t i o n and i s s u e s c o n c e r n i n g the s h o r t c o m i n g s in t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of DAS and I Q M S . The s e c o n d c h a p t e r i n t r o d u c e s key c o n c e p t s t h a t are s a l i e n t to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the s t u d y . The r e v i e w of l i t e r a t u r e is b a s e d on t h e r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e a p p r o a c h . The c h a p t e r d e v e l o p s the study by i n t r o d u c i n g t h e idea of s c h o o l i m p r o v e m e n t and s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t to t h e w h o l e p i c t u r e of t e a c h e r a p p r a i s a l . F u r t h e r m o r e , the key c o n c e p t s in s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g are d e f i n e d a n d c l a r i f i e d as t h e s t u d y u n f o l d s . A w i d e r a n g e of c o n c e p t s t h a t fall w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m s t h i n k i n g p a r a d i g m are c l a r i f i e d for p u r p o s e s of g r o u n d i n g t h e s t u d y .
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s a r e v i e w of l i t e r a t u r e b a s e d on t h e c o n c e p t r e f l e c t i o n . The first p a r t of t h i s c h a p t e r c o v e r s t h e d e f i n i t i o n of the c o n c e p t r e f l e c t i o n , its n a t u r e , d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t , g r o w t h a n d p r a c t i c a l s u g g e s t i o n s in its a p p l i c a t i o n in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s . T h i s p a r t d e m o n s t r a t e s the v a l u e of d i a l o g u e and the use of r e f l e c t i v e a p p r o a c h e s . The s e c o n d p a r t of t h i s c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s an i n - d e p t h c o n c e p t u a l t r e a t m e n t of a p p r a i s a l , p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t , e v a l u a t i o n and o t h e r r e l a t e d c o n c e p t s . T h e s e c o n c e p t s are c o n s i d e r e d as n e c e s s a r y in t h i s c h a p t e r for an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e p o l i c i e s for DAS and I Q M S o p e r a t e . M o s t of t h e s e c o n c e p t s are i m p l i c i t in the DAS and I Q M S p o l i c y d o c u m e n t s .
2 . 2 U n d e r s t a n d i n g o f R e f l e c t i o n
A c c o r d i n g to R o s s ( 1 9 8 7 ) , r e f l e c t i o n is d e f i n e d a s :
"a way of t h i n k i n g a b o u t e d u c a t i o n a l m a t t e r s t h a t i n v o l v e s t h e a b i l i t y to make r a t i o n a l c h o i c e s and to a s s u m e the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h o s e c h o i c e s " ( c i t e d in B a i n e r and C a n t r e l l 1992: 5 7 1 ) .
R e f l e c t i o n , a c c o r d i n g to L u c a s ( 1 9 9 1 ) is a s y s t e m a t i c e n q u i r y i n t o o n e ' s own p r a c t i c e , in o r d e r to i m p r o v e the p r a c t i c e and to g a i n more i n s i g h t into w h a t is h a p p e n i n g ( M c l n t y r e c i t e d in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s
1 9 9 3 : 4 2 - 4 3 ) . M c l n t y r e b e l i e v e s r e f l e c t i o n is a p i v o t a l m e a n s of l e a r n i n g for e x p e r i e n c e d p r a c t i t i o n e r s ( c i t e d in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s 1 9 9 3 : 4 3 ) . The idea of r e f l e c t i o n is more t h a n t h i n k i n g and f o c u s i n g on the
a c t i v i t i e s of t h e d a y , but a l s o i n c l u d e s the i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s in w h i c h p e o p l e a r e w o r k i n g ( K e m m i s 1 9 8 2 : 5 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o K e m m i s ( 1 9 8 2 : 5 ) t h i s is an a c t i o n - o r i e n t e d , h i s t o r i c a l l y - e m b e d d e d , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l f r a m e , to l o c a t e o n e s e l f in the h i s t o r y of a s i t u a t i o n , to p a r t i c i p a t e in a s o c i a l a c t i v i t y and t o t a k e s i d e s on i s s u e s . A p p l e ( 1 9 7 5 : 1 2 7 ) d e s c r i b e s r e f l e c t i o n as a p r o c e s s of e x a m i n i n g c u r r e n t
p o s i t i o n s and a s k i n g p o i n t e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e s e p o s i t i o n s and the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s from w h i c h t h e y a r i s e . This m e a n s b e i n g s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e n g a g e d in p r a c t i c e and to i n q u i r e into s o c i a l r e f o r m s . In t h e e n g a g e m e n t is an e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n s and c o n s e q u e n c e s of e v e r y d a y t e a c h i n g . It a l s o i n v o l v e s i d e n t i f y i n g the f a c t o r s t h a t i m p e d e c h a n g e and l o o k i n g at the r e l e v a n t i n t e r v e n t i o n s to e n g a g e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n s .
R e f l e c t i o n is a form of l e a r n i n g t h a t i n v o l v e s a p r a c t i c e , a p r o c e s s of l e a r n i n g w h i l s t a c t i v e l y e n g a g e d in p r a c t i c e . S c h o n ( 1 9 8 7 ) e x p o u n d s the idea on the n a t u r e of p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e . S c h o n c l a r i f i e d his main ideas on w h a t he m e a n t by r e f l e c t i o n - i n - p r a c t i c e and k n o w i n g - i n - a c t i o n ( 1 9 8 7 : 2 2 ) . T h i s p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s c o n s c i o u s d e l i b e r a t i o n and d e b a t e b e t w e e n p r a c t i t i o n e r s . D e s p i t e the d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and a p p r o a c h e s t o r e f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g , its p r o p o n e n t s s h a r e t h e view t h a t l e a r n i n g and t e a c h i n g i n v o l v e s b e i n g c r i t i c a l or e n g a g i n g in c r i t i q u e , i n v o l v e s a n a l y s i s , e n q u i r y and r e f l e c t i o n on t h e i s s u e s i m p l i c i t in the s o c i a l c o n t e x t ( S c h o n 1 9 8 7 ) . W h a t m a k e s r e f l e c t i o n d i f f e r e n t from the t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h to t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e is t h a t t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r is i n v o l v e d in the c o n t e x t w h e r e l e a r n i n g t a k e s p l a c e . In t h i s way t h i s i m m e r s i o n in t h e c o n t e x t and p r a c t i c e , c r e a t e s a c o n d u c i v e a t m o s p h e r e for l e a r n i n g by r e f l e c t i o n in a c t i o n ( S c h o n 1 9 8 7 ) . In t h i s e n g a g e m e n t as a l e a r n e r one n e e d s to f o r m u l a t e some q u e s t i o n s , to d r a w a h y p o t h e s i s , to i n v e s t i g a t e , i m a g i n e and d e b a t e i s s u e s ( F o s n o t 1 9 8 9 : 2 1 ) . In the c o n t e x t of e n g a g i n g w i t h i s s u e s as a l e a r n e r one n e e d s to be a b l e to t h i n k on t h e spot in r e l a t i o n to w h a t p r e v a i l s in t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t ( C l a r k and L a m p e r t 1 9 8 6 ) . The i n t e r a c t i o n and d i a l o g u e n e e d s to c e n t r e a r o u n d q u e s t i o n i n g , l i s t e n i n g and p r o b i n g - t h e s e are i m p o r t a n t s k i l l s t h a t p r o m o t e i n t e r a c t i o n d u r i n g the p r o c e s s of l e a r n i n g ( F o s n o t 1 9 8 9 : 2 1 - 2 2 ) .
R e f l e c t i o n is w i d e l y a c c e p t e d as a c r u c i a l e l e m e n t in t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o w t h of t e a c h e r s . L a t e l y t h e r e has been a p l e t h o r a of c o n c e p t s t h a t are r e l a t e d to t h i s a p p r o a c h . T h e r e a r e s u c h t e r m s as ' r e f l e c t i v e t e a c h i n g ' , ' i n q u i r y - o r i e n t e d t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n ' , ' t e a c h e r as r e s e a r c h e r ' , and ' r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i t i o n e r ' . All t h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e p r o l i f i c in the d i s c o u r s e s on c l a s s r o o m p r a c t i c e and p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t ( C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s 1 9 9 3 : 1). V a l l i ( 1 9 9 3 , c i t e d in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s 1 9 9 3 : 1 9 ) e x p l o r e s a v a r i e t y of p e r s p e c t i v e s on r e f l e c t i o n . He d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t h e n a r r o w l y f o c u s e d and r e d u c t i o n i s t a p p r o a c h e s and t h o s e w i t h a b r o a d e r o u t l o o k (in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s 1 9 9 3 : 1 1 -
19). F r o m V a l l i ' s ( 1 9 9 3 ) c r i t i q u e of v a r i o u s e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s t h r e e s t r a t e g i e s e m e r g e n a m e l y , j o u r n a l k e e p i n g , s e m i n a r d i a l o g u e s , and a c t i o n r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s ( V a l l i , 1993 c i t e d in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s
1 9 9 3 : 1 9 ) . R e f l e c t i o n h a s b e e n d e f i n e d as an i m p o r t a n t h u m a n a c t i v i t y in w h i c h p e o p l e r e c a p t u r e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s , t h i n k a b o u t it, m u l l over and e v a l u a t e it ( B a l f o u r , B u t h e l e z i and M i t c h e l 2 0 0 4 : 5 9 ) . F e l l o w s and Z i m p h e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) are of the view t h a t in r e f l e c t i o n , t h e m a i n focus is a b o u t t h e p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s and u n d e r s t a n d i n g s ; t h e s e are l i n k e d w i t h p r e s e n t e x p e r i e n c e s to new u n d e r s t a n d i n g s and a p p r e c i a t i o n s ( c i t e d in B a l f o u r e t . a l . , 2 0 0 4 : 6 0 ) . R e f l e c t i o n h a p p e n s in a c o n t e x t , w h e r e it c o u l d be f o c u s e d on p r a c t i c a l \ t e c h n i c a l , s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l , m o r a l \ e t h i c a l i s s u e s (Van M a n e n 1977 in C a l d e r h e a d a n d G a t e s 1 9 9 3 : 2 6 ) . T h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t has b e e n r e v i e w e d i n d i c a t e s t h a t r e f l e c t i o n is c o n t e x t u a l in n a t u r e - i t is i n f l u e n c e d by t h e c o n d i t i o n s of the e n v i r o n m e n t ( L a B o s k e y in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s 1 9 9 3 : 2 3 ) . In the field of e d u c a t i o n , r e f l e c t i o n has come to be w i d e l y k n o w n as a c r u c i a l e l e m e n t in the p r o f e s s i o n a l
d e v e l o p m e n t of t e a c h e r s . A c c o r d i n g to C a l d e r h e a d the need for r e f l e c t i v e t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n has been a r g u e d on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t it f a c i l i t a t e s t h e l i n k i n g of t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e , s u b j e c t s t h e e x p e r t i s e of t e a c h e r s to c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n , and e n a b l e s t h e m to t a k e a m o r e a c t i v e role in t h e i r own p r o f e s s i o n a l a c c o u n t a b i l i t y ( c i t e d in B a l f o u r et.al 2 0 0 4 : 6 0 ) .
L a B o s k e y s u g g e s t s t h a t a r e f l e c t i v e t e a c h e r :
" S h o u l d be a b l e to d e s c r i b e and a n a l y s e the s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s of an e d u c a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n , i s s u e , or p r o b l e m - p r o b l e m d e f i n i t i o n ; to g a t h e r and e v a l u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n as to the p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s of t h e d i l e m m a u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n and to g e n e r a t e m u l t i p l e a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s and t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s - m e a n s / e n d s a n a l y s i s ; and i n t e g r a t e all the i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a t e m p e r e d c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t or s o l u t i o n s for the p r o b l e m i d e n t i f i e d - g e n e r a l i z a t i o n " ( c i t e d in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s
1 9 9 3 : 3 0 ) .
R e f l e c t i v e t e a c h e r s r e f l e c t in o r d e r to l e a r n to i m p r o v e t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of f e e l i n g s and r e s p o n s e s to t h e w o r l d of t e a c h i n g ( L a B o s k e y ) . L a B o s k e y ( 1 9 9 3 : 6 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t r e f l e c t i v e t e a c h e r s r e f l e c t in o r d e r to l e a r n - to i m p r o v e t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of, f e e l i n g s a b o u t , and r e s p o n s e s to t h e w o r l d of t e a c h i n g . She s u g g e s t s t h a t in h e l p i n g n o v i c e t e a c h e r s to b e c o m e r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i t i o n e r s , s e n i o r t e a c h e r s s h o u l d d e m o n s t r a t e to t h e m by e x a m p l e (in B a l f o u r e t . a l . 2 0 0 4 : 6 0 ) . R i c h e r t ( 1 9 8 7 ) s u p p o r t s t h e i d e a t h a t p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t r e f l e c t i o n a l s o i n f l u e n c e how t e a c h e r s t h i n k a b o u t t h e i r work (in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s
1993: 3 1 ) . Boud et. al. ( 1 9 8 5 ) a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y of the r e f l e c t i v e p r o c e s s and t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p and i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n f e e l i n g s and c o g n i t i o n (in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s 1 9 9 3 : 3 1 ) . L i n d a V a l l i ( 1 9 9 3 ) , in her i l l u m i n a t i n g a c c o u n t of r e f l e c t i v e t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , c o m m e n t s on t h e i r o n y of the c o n c u r r e n t p r o b l e m a t i s i n g of the t h e o r y \ p r a c t i c e r e l a t i o n in such p r o g r a m m e s and t h e i n v e s t m e n t at the s a m e t i m e in a t t e m p t s to a r t i c u l a t e c l e a r l y and fully an a c a d e m i c k n o w l e d g e on w h i c h t e a c h i n g is seen to d e p e n d ( L a B o s k e y in C a l d e r h e a d and G a t e s 1 9 9 3 : 4 0 ) . A c c o r d i n g to Day 1 9 9 5 ( c i t e d in B u s h e r and S a r a n 1995: 113) r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e is d e f i n e d as c o n t i n u i n g c o n s c i o u s and s y s t e m a t i c r e v i e w of t h e p u r p o s e s , p l a n s , a c t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n of t e a c h i n g in o r d e r to r e i n f o r c e e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d , w h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e , p r o m p t c h a n g e . D a y , 1 9 9 5 ( c i t e d in B u s h e r and S a r a n 1 9 9 5 : 113) s u g g e s t e d e i g h t s t r a t e g i e s for e n g a g i n g in r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e . The list i n c l u d e s i n v e s t i n g in c o n t i n u i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t ; p r o m o t i n g r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e ; i n v e s t i n g in the s c h o o l ' s c u l t u r e ; k n o w i n g , c o m m u n i c a t i n g a n d s h a r i n g p h i l o s o p h y ; d e v e l o p i n g a m o r a l c o m m i t m e n t ; b e i n g the r i g h t k i n d of a l e a d e r ; d e v e l o p i n g c r i t i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s ; p r o m o t i n g p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o f i l e ( D a y , 1 9 9 5 ( c i t e d in B u s h e r and S a r a n 1 9 9 5 : 1 1 3 ) .
In a n e w s p a p e r a r t i c l e ( S u n d a y T i m e s 2 6 . 3.06 p4) L a u r e n K. J o h n s o n r e c o m m e n d s e i g h t s k i l l s for l e a d e r s h i p . A m o n g s t t h e s e e i g h t e s s e n t i a l s k i l l s is i n c l u d e d :
1. C h a l l e n g i n g : q u e s t i o n i n g y o u r o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s a s s u m p t i o n s and t e s t i n g t h e i r v a l i d i t y .
2. L e a r n i n g : u s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s to make s m a r t e r c h o i c e s and e n g i n e e r c o r r e c t i o n s .
3. E n a b l i n g : o f f e r i n g t h e p e o p l e a r o u n d you the k n o w l e d g e , m e a n s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s to a c t .
4. R e f l e c t i n g : i n v e s t i n g t i m e t h i n k i n g a b o u t w h a t w e n t p o o r l y in y o u r p r e v i o u s d e c i s i o n s and r e f l e c t i n g i n t o y o u r f u t u r e .
5. O b s e r v i n g : l o o k i n g for c o n f i r m i n g and d i s a p p r o v i n g d a t a a b o u t a p r o b l e m or c o u r s e of a c t i o n .
In t h e i r r e s e a r c h Z e i c h n e r and L i s t o n ( 1 9 8 7 ) s u g g e s t t h a t r e f l e c t i v e p r a c t i c e r e q u i r e s a s u p p o r t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h it can be f o s t e r e d . This n o t i o n p o i n t s to a s c h o o l t h a t has a d o p t e d t h e new t h i n k i n g of b e i n g a l e a r n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n ( S e n g e 1990) w h e r e t e a c h e r s are o p e r a t i n g as l i f e l o n g l e a r n e r s , work c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y to r e f l e c t on t h e t e a c h i n g U e a r n i n g p r o c e s s in o r d e r to r e a c h t h e s c h o o l ' s v i s i o n and g o a l s . S w a r t s ( 1 9 9 8 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t t e a c h e r s are c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e i r n a r r o w c o n c e p t i o n of r e f l e c t i o n and c r i t i c a l i n q u i r y . The t e n d e n c y is to focus p r i m a r i l y on t h e i m m e d i a t e and t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s of t e a c h i n g , ( S w a r t s , 1 9 9 8 , c i t e d in D a h l s t r o m , 1 9 9 9 : 9 5 ) .
The p r o c e s s of w o r k i n g w i t h p r i n c i p a l s in DAS and I Q M S i n v o l v e d a shift in t h e p a r a d i g m and the r o u t i n e work of t h e S E M . It t o o k the s h a p e of b e i n g m o r e i n v o l v e d in f i e l d w o r k t h a t p r o m o t e d d i a l o g u e , i n t e r a c t i o n and e n q u i r y . T h e r e was a lot of e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , as c o m p a r e d to t h e r o u t i n e of d e l i v e r i n g c i r c u l a r s a r o u n d s c h o o l s . T h i s e x p e r i e n c e n e e d s to be s u p p o r t e d by an a p p r o a c h t h a t n e e d s to e m p o w e r SEMs in r e f l e c t i v e field r e s e a r c h . T h i s is a s t r a t e g i c t i m e and a p p r o p r i a t e t i m e for SEMs to r e f l e c t w i t h m o r e i n s i g h t and f o c u s e d q u e s t i o n i n g i n t o t h e i r r o l e s as s u p e r v i s o r s . The k i n d of a m o d e l of an SEM t h a t e x i s t s does not fit w i t h the e s p o u s e d r o l e t h a t has been c r e a t e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of I Q M S . The m o d e l t h a t is a p p r a i s e d in t h e s t u d y , g i v e s t h e SEM an o p p o r t u n i t y to m a k e an i n - d e p t h s t u d y of the q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d t o c l a s s r o o m r e l a t e d i s s u e s and m a n a g e r i a l i s s u e s in a new w a y . It r e q u i r e s the SEM to c o n t i n u a l l y e n g a g e in f r e q u e n t e v a l u a t i o n of his or her own l e a r n i n g in the p r o c e s s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s offer o n l y t h a t t h e SEM w r i t e s r e p o r t s , w h i c h b e c o m e s a r i t u a l i s t i c in the long r u n . H o w e v e r t h i s does not n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n t h a t the kind of SEM t h a t is w o r k i n g does not r e f l e c t . R a t h e r it i m p l i e s t h a t t h e r e are d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of r e f l e c t i o n - t h a t w h i c h is t e c h n i c a l , i n t e r p r e t a t i v e and c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n ( G o r e 1987 c i t e d in T a b a c h n i c h a n d Z e i c h n e r 1 9 9 1 : 3 9 ) . One of t h e s e r i o u s flaws in t e c h n i c a l r e f l e c t i o n is t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e l i m i t e d r o l e of the SEM who f o c u s e s n a r r o w l y on w h a t he or she does in t e r m s of t h e way he or she has b e e n p e r c e i v e d to p e r f o r m .
The i n t e r p r e t i v e v i e w e x p o s e s and c l a r i f i e s p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g , a l t h o u g h it fails to c o n f r o n t t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l and a l i e n a t i n g s t r u c t u r e s found in the way t h e S E M s w o r k w i t h t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s . The c r i t i c a l m o d e l h o l d s p r o m i s e s for c o n f r o n t i n g t h e m e n t a l m o d e l s , s t r u c t u r e s a n d i d e o l o g i e s t h a t u n d e r p i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n of the w o r k of t h e SEM ( B u l l o u g h and
Git 1 in, 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e c r i t i c a l view not only c l a r i f i e s e d u c a t i o n a l m e a n s and ends but a l s o h o l d s t h e m up to c r i t i c a l s c r u t i n y in t h e b e l i e f t h a t SEMs have to r e c o g n i s e and t h e n c o n f r o n t u n q u e s t i o n e d r o l e s , i n t e r n a l i s e d v a l u e s and s t r u c t u r e s and p o w e r r e l a t i o n s w h i c h f o s t e r n a r r o w and o p p r e s s i v e r e l a t i o n s of s u p e r v i s o r and s u p e r v i s e e .
This final p a r a d i g m is t h e one t h a t offers t h e SEMs a p l a c e of r e s p e c t a b i l i t y in t h e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m , not b e i n g r e g a r d e d as the w e a k e s t link in the c h a i n . It is t h e one t h a t is n e e d e d in o r d e r to i n s t i l an e n q u i r i n g and c r i t i c a l mind in the p r o s p e c t i v e S E M . T e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e and t e a c h i n g are m u t u a l l y d e p e n d e n t . In t h e S o u t h African s c h o o l i n g s y s t e m t h e SEMs h a v e been d e t a c h e d from the o b s e r v a t i o n of c l a s s r o o m p r a c t i c e . The p o l i t i c a l era from w h i c h t h e c o u n t r y has e v o l v e d r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e SEMs be d i s t a n c e d from t h e c l a s s r o o m c o n t e x t , due to t h e n a t u r e of the a p p r o a c h t h a t was u s e d by t h e p r e v i o u s r e g i m e in c o n d u c t i n g i n s p e c t i o n s . The SEMs w e r e c o n d u c t i n g t h e s e s c h o o l v i s i t s in a n e g a t i v e w a y , w h i c h i n s t i l l e d fear and a n x i e t y a m o n g s t the e d u c a t o r s . The way SEMs p e r f o r m e d t h e i r d u t i e s was p r e m i s e d on j u d g e m e n t a l a p p r o a c h to e v a l u a t i o n . T h e i r a p p r o a c h to work was c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a t e c h n i c a l r a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h l a c k e d d i a l o g u e . It a s s u m e d t h a t t h e SEM due to his or her e x p e r i e n c e knew e v e r y t h i n g . T h e y o n l y c a m e to c o n f i r m t h e i r a s s u m p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g what may not be t h e r i g h t way of t e a c h i n g . S o m e h o w , t h e i r t e c h n i c a l and j u d g e m e n t a l a p p r o a c h was a l s o r i t u a l i s t i c .
The r i t u a l i s t i c way of c o n d u c t i n g i n s p e c t i o n s p r o m o t e d a r i t u a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h to t e a c h i n g . T h i s c o u l d be o b s e r v e d from t h e b e h a v i o u r of t e a c h e r s , w h e n e v e r i n s p e c t o r s were c o m i n g to c o n d u c t s c h o o l v i s i t s . T e a c h e r s p e r f o r m e d on t h e day of the v i s i t and r e v e r t e d to t h e i r old ways o n c e the i n s p e c t o r s had f i n i s h e d t h e i r w o r k . The r e p o r t s t h a t were w r i t t e n by t h e i n s p e c t o r s w e r e n e v e r d i s c u s s e d w i t h t h o s e who w e r e b e i n g i n s p e c t e d . C o r n b l e t h b e l i e v e s t h a t t h i n k i n g is a s o c i a l p r o d u c t , as well as a c o g n i t i v e a c t i v i t y s h a p e d by t h e m i l i e u and n o r m s of the c o m m u n i t y it o c c u r s ( c i t e d in G r a v e s 1 9 9 0 : 1 9 3 ) .
In the 1980s to 1990s w i t h the e m e r g e n c e of p o l i t i c a l l y led t e a c h e r u n i o n s , the p r a c t i c e of i n s p e c t i o n was c h a l l e n g e d in t h e S o u t h African s c h o o l s . In s o m e a r e a s i n s p e c t o r s w e r e p h y s i c a l l y c h a s e d a w a y from s c h o o l s . The s c h o o l s b e c a m e t e r r a i n s and p l a c e s of i n f l u e n c e for t h e u n i o n s and t h e p r a c t i c i n g t e a c h e r s . P o l i t i c a l e v e n t s of e a r l y 1990s led to the first d e m o c r a t i c e l e c t i o n s . For a n u m b e r of y e a r s a v a c u u m had come to e x i s t e n c e in t e r m s of t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n .
2 . 3 T e a c h e r a p p r a i s a l
With the w i d e - r a n g i n g c h a n g e s in e d u c a t i o n , a p p r a i s a l has b e c o m e a s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e of the s c h o o l s y s t e m . The l i t e r a t u r e ( E v a n s and T o m l i n s o n , 1 9 8 9 : 8 ; J o n e s et. a l . , 1989; P o s t e r and P o s t e r , 1991) i n d i c a t e s t h a t a p p r a i s a l was i m p l e m e n t e d fifteen y e a r s ago in the B r i t i s h e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m . E v a n s and T o m l i n s o n ( 1 9 8 9 : 8 ) p o i n t out t h a t the main r e a s o n for i m p l e m e n t i n g a p p r a i s a l is to i m p r o v e t e a c h i n g and
l e a r n i n g . The s c h o o l i m p r o v e m e n t m o v e m e n t o v e r e m p h a s i s e d the idea of s c h o o l a c c o u n t a b i l i t y for p u r p o s e s of l e a r n i n g . In t h e e i g h t i e s the B r i t i s h s y s t e m was i n v o l v e d in t r y i n g to find m e a n s t h r o u g h w h i c h s c h o o l s c o u l d u n d e r t a k e c u r r i c u l u m r e a p p r a i s a l in a way t h a t w o u l d i n v o l v e all s t a f f l o o k i n g at the s c h o o l ' s t o t a l p r o v i s i o n ( T o m l i n s o n 1980: 19-20 in E v a n s and T o m l i n s o n 1 9 8 9 : 1 4 ) . The s c h o o l i m p r o v e m e n t a p p r o a c h r e i n f o r c e d t h e c o n c e p t of t e a c h e r s b e i n g r e f l e c t i v e and self- c r i t i c a l a b o u t t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e w o r k . One of t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t E v a n s and T o m l i n s o n ( 1 9 8 9 : 1 5 ) r a i s e d was w h e t h e r the s y s t e m n e e d e d t e a c h e r a p p r a i s a l , p e r f o r m a n c e r e v i e w , or p e r f o r m a n c e i m p r o v e m e n t . A c c o u n t a b i l i t y and p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t are the t w o c o n t r a s t i n g a p p r o a c h e s to t e a c h e r a p p r a i s a l . The d i f f i c u l t y t h a t was e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of the t w o a p p r o a c h e s was t h a t t e a c h e r s w e r e not o p e n , frank and f o r t h r i g h t d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s of a p p r a i s a l ( E v a n s and T o m l i n s o n 199 8 . 1 5 ) .
M o n y a t s i ( 2 0 0 3 : 6 2 ) i d e n t i f i e d two a p p r a i s a l p r o c e s s e s , n a m e l y the p r o f e s s i o n a l and a c c o u n t a b i l i t y m o d e l s . The p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t m o d e l is p r e m i s e d on t e a c h e r i m p r o v e m e n t of t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e in o r d e r to e n h a n c e t h e l e a r n i n g of s t u d e n t s . The m o d e l e n v i s a g e s a t w o way p r o c e s s of r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e a p p r a i s e r and t h e a p p r a i s e e . T h i s model is b a s e d on a c o l l e g i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p of t r u s t and c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e l a t t e r . In t h i s p r o c e s s e v e r y t e a c h e r is an a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t . M u r d o c k ( 2 0 0 0 : 5 5 ) i n s i s t s t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n by s t a f f in i n i t i a t i n g and c o n t r i b u t i n g to t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p r o c e d u r e s a n d t h e use of t o o l s is c r i t i c a l ( c i t e d in M o n y a t s i 2 0 0 6 : 2 1 7 ) . M o n y a t s i r e c o g n i s e s the c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e of r e f l e c t i o n on p r a c t i c e in t h i s a p p r a i s a l m o d e l t h a t is d e v e l o p m e n t a l in its n a t u r e ( 2 0 0 6 : 2 1 8 ) .
2. 4 Performance Appraisal
A p p r a i s a l is an o v e r a l l a s s e s s m e n t of the r e l e v a n c e , f e a s i b i l i t y and p o t e n t i a l s u s t a i n a b i l i t y of f u n d i n g ( D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e C o m m i t t e e : 2 0 0 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g to B e r n a n d i n e t . a l ( 1 9 9 5 : 4 7 0 - 4 7 1 ) a p p r a i s a l is the act of e s t i m a t i n g or j u d g i n g t h e n a t u r e or v a l u e of s o m e t h i n g or s o m e o n e ; an e s t i m a t e of v a l u e ; an e s t i m a t e or c o n s i d e r e d o p i n i o n of the v a l u e s ; q u a l i t y i m p o r t a n c e ( c i t e d in W e n a s 1 9 9 8 : 7 5 ) .
The ACAS a g r e e m e n t ( 1 9 8 6 ) d e f i n e d a p p r a i s a l a s :
"A c o n t i n u o u s a n d s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e s s i n t e n d e d to h e l p i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s w i t h t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t and c a r e e r p l a n n i n g , and to help them w i t h t h e i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g and d e p l o y m e n t of t e a c h e r s t h a t m a t c h e s w i t h t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y n e e d s of i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s and the s c h o o l s " ( c i t e d in J o n e s e t . a l . 1 9 8 9 : 2 4 7 ) .
A c c o r d i n g to P o s t e r and P o s t e r ( 1 9 9 1 : 1 ) p e r f o r m a n c e a p p r a i s a l f o c u s e s on s e t t i n g a c h i e v a b l e , often r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t - t e r m g o a l s and by g i v i n g f e e d b a c k : on t a s k c l a r i f i c a t i o n t h r o u g h r e a c h i n g c o n s e n s u s on an e m p l o y e e ' s o b j e c t i v e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e of t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n ; and on i d e n t i f y i n g r a i n i n g n e e d s as i n d i c a t e d e i t h e r by s h o r t c o m i n g s in p e r f o r m a n c e or by p o t e n t i a l i t i e s for h i g h e r l e v e l s of e n d e a v o u r .
P e r f o r m a n c e is d e f i n e d as the d e g r e e to w h i c h a d e v e l o p m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n or a d e v e l o p m e n t p a r t n e r o p e r a t e s a c c o r d i n g to s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a , s t a n d a r d s , and g u i d e l i n e s or a c h i e v e s r e s u l t s in a c c o r d a n c e with s t a t e d g o a l s or p l a n s ( D A C : 2 0 0 2 ) .
B a s e l i n e s t u d y is an a n a l y s i s d e s c r i b i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n p r i o r to a d e v e l o p m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n , a g a i n s t w h i c h p r o g r e s s can be a s s e s s e d or c o m p a r i s o n s m a d e . T h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s are i n d i v i d u a l s , g r o u p s , or o r g a n i s a t i o n s , w h e t h e r t a r g e t e d or not, t h a t b e n e f i t , d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y , form t h e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n ( D A C : 2 0 0 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g to H i c k c o x a n d M u s e l l a ( 1 9 9 2 : 1 5 9 ) p e r f o r m a n c e a p p r a i s a l has a p u r p o s e of i m p r o v i n g t e a c h i n g and e n s u r i n g a c c o u n t a b i l i t y . P o s t e r d i f f e r e n t i a t e s b e t w e e n p e r f o r m a n c e a p p r a i s a l and m e r i t r a t i n g ( 1 9 9 1 : 6 ) . A p p r a i s a l has v a r i o u s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s d e p e n d i n g on the c o n t e x t of t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n . P o s t e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) offers a l i s t of s c e n a r i o s and e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t a p p r a i s a l s y s t e m s . I n c l u d e d in t h i s list are some of t h e f o l l o w i n g s c e n a r i o s , n a m e l y ,
1. the i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l and the o r g a n i s a t i o n , 2. e n c o u r a g e m e n t of s e l f - d e v e l o p m e n t
3. the p r o v i s i o n of t h e b a s i s for an i n s t i t u t i o n a l a u d i t
4. the d i s s e m i n a t i o n of c a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t a d v i c e to the m a n a g e r s w i t h c l e a r o b j e c t i v e s
5. e n h a n c i n g t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n and a d e m o c r a t i c s t y l e of m a n a g e m e n t 6. the r e c o g n i t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l and staff ( P o s t e r 1 9 9 1 : 6 - 7 ) .
I a g r e e w i t h R a n d a l e t . a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) t h a t a p p r a i s a l n e e d s to c a t e r for p e r f o r m a n c e , r e w a r d p o t e n t i a l and c o n s i d e r p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t ( c i t e d in P o s t e r 1 9 9 1 : 6 ) . P o s t e r i d e n t i f i e s four t y p e s of a p p r a i s a l s , n a m e l y d e v e l o p m e n t a l , m a n a g e r i a l , l a i s s e z f a i r e a n d j u d g e m e n t a l a p p r a i s a l ( 1 9 9 1 : 9 ) .
2. 5 Appraisal and Evaluation
A p p r a i s a l and e v a l u a t i o n are t r e a t e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y in m o s t s i t u a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h in t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n c o n t e x t t h e y h a v e t a k e n d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in e d u c a t i o n . In t h i s c o n t e x t , e v a l u a t i o n is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m a k i n g j u d g m e n t ; as a s u m m a t i v e e x e r c i s e w h i l e a p p r a i s a l is t a k e n as a p o s i t i v e ; d e v e l o p m e n t a l and a f o r m a t i v e p r o c e s s f o c u s e d on t e a c h e r d e v e l o p m e n t ( Q u i n l a n and D a v i d o f f 1 9 9 7 : 8 ) . E v a l u a t i o n s t i l l i n v o l v e s some e l e m e n t s of i n s p e c t i o n , a n d r e p o r t s b a s e d on p e r f o r m a n c e for p u r p o s e s of c o n f i r m a t i o n of p r o b a t i o n a r y t e a c h e r s ; p r o m o t i o n ; p a s s i n g s a l a r y \ s c a l e b a r r i e r s ; d i s m i s s a l ( Q u i n l a n and D a v i d o f f 1 9 9 7 : 8 ) . A p p r a i s a l t a k e s the f e a t u r e of b e i n g a l e a r n i n g e x e r c i s e for p u r p o s e s of d i a g n o s i n g f a u l t s ; b u i l d i n g on t h e s t r e n g t h s and c o r r e c t w e a k n e s s e s ; i n f o r m t e a c h e r s a b o u t t h e i r p r o g r e s s ; s e t t i n g new t a r g e t s ( Q u i n l a n and D a v i d o f f 1 9 9 7 : 8 ) . Peer a p p r a i s a l is a s y s t e m w h e r e b y c o l l e a g u e s o b s e r v e one a n o t h e r , o f f e r i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s and f a c i l i t a t i n g a p r o c e s s of s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n ( I b i d 1 0 ) .
