Fig. 2. Hazard Index
Fig. 3. Total Cancer Risk
of rice. The TCR were showed the value of 8.03 x 10-3 for adults and 2.94 x 10-2 for kids. The value was higher than standar for carcinogenic which were 1 x 10-06. As we can see, the carcinogenic risk was higher in kids than in adults. (Fig. 2 and 3) 4. Discussion
The concentration of heavy metals in rice in the city of Palembang was known to be still within safe limits. This was in line with previous studies where the arsenic concentration was found to be 0.06-0.30 mg/kg and was within the safe limit set by WHO, which was 0.3 mg/kg [23].
However, in this study, it was found that there was a potential risk due to rice consumption even though the arsenic concentration was still within the safe limit according to WHO [16]. As for the
heavy metal arsenic, the concentration is below the detection limit of the ICP-OES method. This was in contrast to research in Argentina, where arsenic was detected at concentrations of 0.87-3.16 mg/kg [24]. In addition to arsenic, lead concentrations are still below the detection limit.
This contrasts with a study from Iran where the detected lead was very high, reaching 35 mg/kg [25]. This far exceeds the safe limit set by the WHO of 0.2 mg/kg [26].
The last heavy metal that below the detection limit is cadmium. The detection limit value of cadmium using the ICP-OES method was known to be the highest compared to other heavy metals.
This study contrasts with previous studies where cadmium was detected at concentrations of 0.008-0.01 mg/kg [27]. However, this study and
1.00E-03
1.00E-02
1.00E-01
1.00E+00
TCR (PW) TCR (P)
previous studies both showed that the concentration of cadmium was within the safe limits set by WHO and the standard set by the Indonesian Standardization Agency of 0.4 mg/kg [26, 28]. Coppers was a metal whose detection rate is above the detection limit among the other three heavy metals. The finding of copper in rice is in line with the study in Indonesia. This study also shows that the concentration of heavy metal Cu was still in the safe limit with a concentration of 4.13-4.76 mg/kg [29]. It was known that the safe limit of copper concentration in rice is 20 mg/kg [30].
The both types of rices showed there were risk by counsuming rice even the concentrations of heavy metals were lower than standard. On the other hand, health risks were not only influenced by heavy metal concentrations but are also influenced by the amount of rice consumption, frequency of exposure, duration of exposure to body weight. Duration of exposure, frequency of exposure and the amount of consumption per day are known to be directly proportional to health risks. The larger these values, the greater the potential risk that can occur [31]. On the other hand, weight were denumerator in formula. The higher of weight, the lower risk will be occur [32].
The limitation of this research is the method used for analysis. The limit of detection using the ICP-OES method is known to be high. Three of the four heavy metals detected were below the LOD because the detection limit of ICP-OES was known to be higher than that of ICO-MS. In addition the subject data in this study used secondary data rather than used primary data from local people.
5. Conclusion
There were no significant differences between the two types of rice. The Pandan wangi rice was shorter than Pulen rice. For the colors, the pulen rice was whiter than Pandan wangi rice. Heavy metal analysis was carried out using the ICP-OES method. Through this preliminary study, heavy metal analysis was carried out, including arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and copper (Cu).
The results of the analysis showed that the
concentrations of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and Lead (Pb) were below the detection limit, while the concentration of copper (Cu) was detected and still on safe limit. The highest HQ were from arsenic which only heavy metal which have a non-carcinogenic effect on health. The HI showed there were carcinogenic effects by consuming rice that was contaminated with four heavy metals.
The highest CR were from arsenic. All heavy metals showed there was carcinogenic risk. The TCR showed that there were carcinogenic risk by consuming rice that was contaminated with four heavy metals.
Recommendations
The concentration of heavy metals at safe limits must be maintained so that rice consumption does not pose a health risk to the community. Heavy metal analysis can also use the ICP-MS method for higher detection limits.
Risk should be manage by reduce the concentrations of heavy metals in rice by controlling the use of pesticides and fertilizer in plating process. The risk might be reduced also by minimize the amount of rice consumption in one day. The study also used secondary data rather than primary data from Palembang people.
Further studies can use questionnaires for personal data to be more in accordance with the assessment based on population. The potential risk results also showed there may be risk related heavy metals contaminations. The government should make clear regulations related pesticides and fertilizer used in paddy field to reduce heavy metals exposure in agricultural products.
Indonesia government also need set standar regarding heavy metals safe standard in rice based on consumption of people rather than use international standard.
Acknowledgments
The authors thankfully acknowledge the support of the College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, and the Health Laboratory Center of Palembang for their invaluable support in terms of scientific facilities and equipment.
References
[1] European Food Safety Authority [EFSA].
Cadmium in food - Scientific opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain.
EFSA Journal. 2009; 7(3): 980. doi: 10.2903/j.
efsa.2009.980
[2] Wani AL, Ara A, Usmani JA. Lead toxicity: a review. Interdiscip Toxicol. 2015; 8(2): 55-64.
doi: 10.1515/intox-2015-0009
[3] United States Environmental Protection Agency [US EPA]. Exposure assessment tools by routes-Inhalation 2021. [cited 2022 March 5].
Available from: https://www.epa.gov/expobox/
exposure-assessment-tools-routes-inhalation.
[4] Hooda PS. Trace elements in soils. London:
Wiley; 2010.
[5] Wei B, Yu J, Cao Z, Meng M, Yang L, Chen Q.
The availability and accumulation of heavy metals in greenhouse soils associated with intensive fertilizer application. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020; 17(15): 5359. doi:
10.3390/ijerph17155359
[6] Zhang J, Li H, Zhou Y, Dou L, Cai L, Mo L, et al. Bioavailability and soil-to-crop transfer of heavy metals in farmland soils: A case study in the Pearl River Delta, South China. Environ Pollut. 2018; 235: 710-9. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.
2017.12.106
[7] Sharma A, Kumar V, Kumar R, Shahzad B, Thukral AK, Bhardwaj R. Brassinosteroid-mediated pesticide detoxification in plants: A mini-review. Cogent Food Agric. 2018; 4(1):
1436212. doi: 10.1080/23311932.2018.1436212 [8] Sharma A, Kumar V, Thukral AK, Bhardwaj R.
Responses of plants to pesticide toxicity: an overview. Planta Daninha. 2019; 37: e019184291.
doi: 10.1590/S0100-83582019370100065 [9] Alengebawy A, Abdelkhalek ST, Qureshi SR,
Wang MQ. Heavy metals and pesticides toxicity in agricultural soil and plants: ecological risks and human health implications. Toxics. 2021;
9(3): 42. doi: 10.3390/toxics9030042
[10] Chen B, Corns WT, Stockwell PB, Huang JH.
Accurate fast screening for total and inorganic arsenic in rice grains using hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry (HG-AFS).
Anal Methods. 2014; 6(18): 7554-8. doi:
10.1039/c4ay00858h
[11] Chu DB, Duong HT, Nguyet Luu MT, Vu-Thi HA, Ly BT, Loi VD. Arsenic and Heavy Metals in Vietnamese Rice: Assessment of Human Exposure to These Elements through Rice
Consumption. J Anal Methods Chem. 2021;
2021: 6661955. doi: 10.1155/2021/6661955 [12] Ginting EE. Analisis Arsen pada Berbagai Jenis
Beras yang Beredar di Kota Medan dengan Spektrofotometri Serapan Atom. Medan:
Universitas Sumatera Utara; 2018.
[13] World Health Organization [WHO]. Arsenic 2018. [cited 2022 January 30]. Available from:
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/
detail/arsenic.
[14] Davis C. Arsenic poisoning. [cited 2022 February 26]. Available from: http://www.medicinenet.
com/arsenic_poisoning
[15] Badan Pusat Statistik [BPS]. Kajian Konsumsi Bahan Pokok 2017. BPS; 2018.
[16] Saraswati IN. Analisis Arsen pada Beras dan Hasil Tanakannya secara Spektrofotometri Serapan Atom. Medan: Universitas Sumatera Utara; 2018.
[17] Pizarro I, Gomez M, Palacios MA, Camara C.
Evaluation of stability of arsenic species in rice.
Anal Bioanal Chem. 2003; 376(1): 102-9. doi:
10.1007/s00216-003-1870-9
[18] THERMO Scientific. Sample preparation techniques for AAS, ICP-OES and ICP-MS for regulated testing laboratories. THERMO Scientific; 2021.
[19] Song D, Zhuang D, Jiang D, Fu J, Wang Q.
Integrated health risk assessment of heavy metals in Suxian County, South China. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015; 12(7): 7100-17. doi: 10.3390/ijerph120707100
[20] United States Environmental Protection Agency [US EPA]. Risk assessment guidance for superfund (Part E, Part F). Washington DC:
EPA; 2011.
[21] Menkes. Pedoman Analisis Risiko Kesehatan Lingkungan (ARKL). Jakarta: Kementrian Kesehatan; 2012.
[22] Zeng F, Wei W, Li M, Huang R, Yang F, Duan Y. Heavy metal contamination in rice-producing soils of Hunan province, China and potential health risks. Int J Environ Res Public Health.
2015; 12(12): 15584-93. doi: 10.3390/ijerph 121215005
[23] US Food and Drug Administration [FDA].
Analytical results from inorganic arsenic in rice and rice products sampling September 2013.
[cited 2022 January 30]. Available from: https://
www.fda.gov/media/86074/download
[24] Sigrist M, Hilbe N, Brusa L, Campagnoli D, Beldomenico H. Total arsenic in selected food
samples from Argentina: Estimation of their contribution to inorganic arsenic dietary intake.
Food Chem. 2016; 210: 96-101. doi: 10.1016/
j.foodchem.2016.04.072
[25] Fakhri Y, Bjorklund G, Bandpei AM, Chirumbolo S, Keramati H, Hosseini Pouya R, et al. Concentrations of arsenic and lead in rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Iran: A systematic review and carcinogenic risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol. 2018; 113: 267-77. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.
2018.01.018
[26] World Health Organization [WHO]. Codex Alimentarius Commission. Report on the 11th session of the Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods. WHO; 2017.
[27] Taghi PB. Analisis Logam Berat Kadmium Pada Beras Dan Tanah Sawah Di Desa Loa Kecamatan Soa Kabupaten Ngada. Flore:
Universitas Flores; 2021.
[28] Standar Nasional Indonesia [SNI]. Batas maksimum cemaran logam berat dalam pangan.
Jakarta: Badan Standarisasi Nasional; 2009.
[29] Rasydy LOA, Sylvia D, Zein ZA. Analisis Logam Berat pada Beras (Oriza Sativa L.) yang Ditanam di Daerah Industri Karet Mekar Jaya.
Jurnal Farmagazine. 2021; 8(1): 66-74.
[30] World Health Organization [WHO]. Codex Alimentarius Commission. Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods. WHO; 2014.
[31] Bahar SN, Daud A, Indar. Risiko Paparan Arsen Pada Masyarakat Sekitar Sungai Pangkajene Kecamata Bungoro Kabutan Pangkep. 2012;
4(2): 44-51.
[32] Nukman A, Rahman A, Warouw S, Setiadi MI, Akib CR. Analisis Dan Manajemen Risiko Kesehatan Pencemaran Udara: Studi Kasus Di Sembilan Kota Besar Padat Transportasi. Jurnal Ekologi Kesehatan. 2005; 4(2): 270-89. doi:
10.22435/jek.v4i2 Agt.1634.
ERENCE PROCEEDING