Asia World’s highest mountain range the Himalayas
Reduced snow and ice; threat to ecosystems and loss of attractiveness; possible decline in the activity- based tourism market
World’s second biggest rain forest complex
Loss of biodiversity and attractiveness to tourists
Over half of the world’s share of coral reefs; Indonesia and Malaysia rank amongst the top countries for their biodiversity
Vulnerability of coral reefs to
‘bleaching’ caused by higher sea temperatures; loss of sand beaches in south- east Asia from sea- level rises all threaten tourism demand
Source: based on La Trobe, 2002; IPCC, 2007b
TOURISM STAKEHOLDERS’ RESPONSES TO THE GLOBAL
challenges of climate change and poverty reduction, there is a need to urgently adopt a range of policies which encourage truly sustainable tourism that refl ects a
“quadruple bottom line” of environmental, social, economic and climate responses’ (UNWTO, 2007a: 2).
Within the range of actions to be taken by governments and international organi-sations, special attention is drawn by the UNWTO (2007a) to the need to provide fi nancial, technical and training support to tourism destinations in developing countries, especially in LDCs and SIDS, with the aim of increasing the capacity for adaptive responses to climate change. From the evidence of how tourism- dependent destinations in the European Alps are responding to the threats of reduced snow cover, it is necessary to consider a range of options from technical improvisation to new product development and marketing strategies. However, such ability for adaptation is reliant on having fi nancial resources and also the knowledge of tourism to be able to make suitable strategic decisions and plans. As the UNWTO (2007a) point out, there is a subsequent need to raise the capacity of tourism destinations in LDCs and developing countries to be able to respond to climate change. However, in cases where the whole geography of states is threatened by climate change – for example, the Maldives – the coping strategies that are necessary will lie beyond the remit of tourism, requiring holistic responses from supranational agencies that embrace collective responses.
There is an evident need for the tourism industry to continue with its efforts to mitigate the effect of and adapt to GEC. The UNWTO (2003, 2007a) draws attention for the need of the tourism industry to mitigate its GHG emissions, especially those from transport and accommodation. Alongside pollution from tourism superstructure – for example, hotels, attractions and restaurants – a major issue relates to the contribution of the transport element of tourism to global warming. For example, in the USA it is estimated that 76.5 per cent of tourism’s contributions to greenhouse emissions is derived from transport, with the remainder coming from other tourist services – for example, accommo-dation, and restaurants (WTO, 2003). In the context of using international tourism for poverty reduction, the issue of aviation’s contribution to climate change poses a particular challenge as it has become a focus of political confl ict. Some climatologists claim that aviation is the fastest growing cause of climate change (Garman, 2006), although this view is discredited by pro- tourism organisations, including the UNWTO, WTTC and International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
The UNWTO itself recognises the need for tourists to be environmentally aware in their decision- making, calling for consumers to: ‘be encouraged to consider the climate, economic, social and environmental impacts of their options before
making a decision and, where possible to reduce their carbon footprint, or offset emissions that cannot be reduced directly’ (UNWTO, 2007a: 3).
A conundrum therefore arises between the requirement for international tourism to play a signifi cant role in poverty reduction and the contribution of aviation to climate change. A reduction in tourist fl ows from developed countries to LDCs potentially threatens tourism’s viability as a tool for poverty reduction. One strategy to overcome the dilemma of balancing a reduction in the carbon footprint with a social agenda is for tourists to take fewer trips but stay longer in destina-tions, a situation that could benefi t the poor if meaningful exchanges take place through tourism that actually lead to poverty reduction. Thus, whilst any decrease in demand for aviation would seem to threaten the potential use of international tourism for poverty reduction, this is not necessarily the case. The adaptation of tourists to a total fewer of trips but to remain longer in their destinations offers the potential to simultaneously reduce tourism’s contribution to GEC whilst enhancing its use for poverty reduction.
SUMMARY
•
Historically, there has been a strong human reliance on the natural resources of the surrounding environment to meet one’s needs. However, the geograph-ical inheritance of the place one is born into is not deterministic for develop-ment, as the world has become increasingly inter- connected since the beginnings of trans-ocean trade in the fi fteenth century. More places have become integrated with each other through the forces of globalisation. Never-theless, the world’s poor remain either cut off from the benefi ts of this rela-tionship or they are such that they exacerbate poverty. There are certain key characteristics that are common to many of the poorest countries, including being landlocked, having a small population, and a dependency on primary goods for exports. This combination of a lack of ocean access, small internal markets, and a reliance on primary goods that are highly vulnerable to vola-tile price changes in the world markets all limit opportunities for development.
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A reliance on the local environment is especially acute for the poor with a dependency on ecosystem services for well- being and poverty reduction.These services are determined by the quality of the ecosystem of which the poor are a part and include the meeting of ‘provisioning’, ‘regulating’ and
‘enriching’ needs. The poor are more heavily dependent upon the ecosystem services than the rich because they have less access to resources for coping strategies. Enrichment of people through the cultural services of ecosystems is important for the spiritual guidance of societies but its value is often over-looked by multilateral and government development agencies.
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The geographical characteristics of place and their differentiation are essen-tial to the development of tourism and the willingness of people to travel from their home environments. The value of spatial variation in nature and‘authenticity’ of culture are typically primary pulls for tourists to visit a particular place. Tourism is a process and system that integrates places into networks bringing the wealthier into contact with the poor. Whilst there are marked potential economic benefi ts from this relationship, there also exists potential cultural harm associated with aspects of the demonstration effect and acculturation, and negative environmental consequences from overuse.
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An increasing inter- connectivity of places and issues of political hegemony raise issues over the control the poor can have on directing development and livelihood opportunities. Issues of agency, structure and participatory approaches to development are important for ensuring that tourism policy refl ects the needs of the poor and is tailored to overcoming barriers to their participation in the industry and fulfi lling their aspirations. There is a need to recognise the epistemological differences of place and indigenous knowl-edge. Without rich and in- depth understandings of how poverty is experi-enced and interpreted, how the poor perceive that tourism can be used to enhance their livelihood opportunities and lift them out of poverty, there is a danger of externally imposed policy solutions failing because of a lack of awareness of localised and cultural interpretations of the poverty–tourism nexus.
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Global Environmental Change (GEC) of which climate change is a key driver, poses threats to the well- being of the poor as the ecosystem services on which they depend are threatened. It also poses a signifi cant threat to climate- sensitive industries of agriculture and fi shing in which the poor are traditionally employed. As a climate-sensitive industry, negative effects from GEC on ecosystems that attract tourists to countries and within countries, such as wildlife and coral reefs, will be detrimental to the use of tourism for poverty reduction. The issue of aviation’s contribution to climate change has become a politically contentious one and raises key issues about how long- haul tourism can be best used for poverty reduction in a sustainable framework.The preceeding chapter focused on how the geography of place has relevance to explaining both patterns of poverty and the interaction of tourism and poverty reduction. It also emphasised how many places are becoming increasingly inter- connected and inter- dependent in economic relationships that are benefi cial for some but not for others. This diversifi cation of inter- connectivity and develop-ment is also refl ected in lifestyles as described by Radcliffe (1999: 4): ‘Cosmo-politan jet setters in São Paulo live one kind of development while women in sub-Saharan Africa walking for hours to collect water experience a completely different kind of development.’ The lifestyles illustrated in this statement portray one that is highly global and inter- connected and one that is highly dependent upon the resources of place. The ‘cosmopolitan and jet- setter’ typology is indica-tive of an evident trend in international relations that emphasises an inter- connectivity of many places across economic, cultural and environmental spheres.
This trend has been particularly evident in the culture and transport spheres since the 1960s and in those of economy and information technology since the 1980s.
Inherent to this process of inter-connection, loosely termed ‘globalisation’, are issues of power and economic decision- making that affects the lives of hundreds