By:
ASNA WIDADI 107014001110
THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
THE FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING
THE SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
ii A “Skripsi”
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teacher’s Training
in a Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of S.Pd.
(Bachelor of Art) in English Language Education
By:
ASNA WIDADI 107014001110
Approved by the Advisor
Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd. NIP.150 041 070
THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
THE FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING
THE SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
v
Teacher’s Training of State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2014.
Key Words : Errors, Can and May
This study is aimed to find empirical evidence of major errors in using can and may which the Second Grade students of MTs Negeri Parung, Bogor made in the even semester of the 2010- 2011 academic year.
The sample of this study consisted of 40 students of VIII-2 class. The data were collected through test and interview. The collected data was analyzed by
using descriptive analysis by describing students’ errors and quantitative analysis
by the formula of the percentage.
The results of this study are as follows: (1) Based on the explanations on research findings, so the errors made by students consisting of word choice with the percentage 81.31% , verb tense with the percentage 10.20%, and addition with the percentage 8.49%. (2) The reason why students make errors in using can and may caused by inter-lingual transfer in which the systems, rules, and patterns of
the students’ native language distract their target language with the percentage
65.78%. Next, the students make the errors caused by context of learning in which either the teachers, textbooks, or the patterns are improperly contextualized with the percentage16.50%. At last, the students make the errors caused by intra-lingual transfer in which the students create the hypotheses which are not related to their first and target language with the percentage 17.72%.
v
Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan, Universitas Islam Negri Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta, 2014.
Kata Kunci : Kesalahan-kesalahan, can dan may
Penelitian ini dimaksudkan adalah untuk menemukan bukti nyata dari kesalahan-kesalahan utama dalam menggunakan dalam can dan may yang siswa kelas 2 MTs Negeri Parung Bogor buat pada semester genap tahun akademik 2010/2011.
Sample dalam penelitian ini terdiri dari 40 siswa kelas VIII-2. Data dikumpulkan melalui tes dan wawancara. Data yang telah dikumpulkan dianalisa dengan menggunakan analisa deskriptif dengan menggambarkan kesalahan siswa dan analisa kuantitatif dengan rumus persentase.
Hasil penelitian adalah sebagai berikut: (1) kesalahan- kesalahan yang banyak dibuat oleh siswa terdiri dari: word choice dengan persentase 81.31%, verb tense dengan persentase 10.20%, dan addition dengan persentase 8.49%. (2) alasan siswa mengapa siswa melakukan kesalahan dalam menggunakan can dan may disebabkan karena inter-lingual transfer dimana system, aturan dan pola bahasa asli siswa mengganggu bahasa yang sedang siswa pelajaridengan persentase 65.78%. Selanjutnya, siswa membuat kesalahan karena context of learning yang mana guru-guru, buku teks, atau pola-pola yang tidak kontekstual dengan persentase 16.50%. Terakhir, siswa membuat kesalahan karena intra-lingual transfer dimana siswa membuat hipotesa yang tidak ada hubungannya dengan bahasa pertama dan bahasa yang sedang mereka pelajari dengan persentase 17.72%.
vii
All praises be to Allah, Lord of the World, who gives the writer guidance
and strength in doing this “Skripsi” until it is finish. Then peace and prayers be upon to the prophet Muhammad shalalahu ‘alaihi wassalam, to his family, his
relatives, and his followers.
In this occasion, the writer would like to express her greatest appreciation,
honor, and gratitude to her beloved mother, Hj. Komariyah, for her valuable
supports and moral encouragements in motivating the writer to finish her study.
The writer also would like to express her deepest gratitude to her advisor,
Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M,Pd., who guides the writer in finishing this “Skripsi” for
the great contribution, guidance, kindness, and patience.
Moreover, the writer would like to give thanks and appreciation to:
1. Drs. Syauki, M.Pd, the head of the Department of English Education.
2. Zaharil Anasy, M. Hum, as the secretary of the Department of English
Education.
3. Dra. Nurlena Rifa’I, M.A., Ph.D., as the Dean of the Faculty of Tarbiya and
Teacher’s Training.
4. All lecturers and the staff of the Department of English Education, for their
knowledge, motivation and patience during her study at the Syarif Hidayatullah
State Islamic University Jakarta.
5. Hj. Eti Munyati, S.Ag., as the headmaster of MTs Negeri Parung Bogor for
giving the permission to conduct the research.
6. Mrs. Ade Amalia, S.Pd., the English teacher of MTs Negeri Parung, for giving
help, guidance, support and suggestion during conducting the research
viii
May Allah Subhanallahu wa ta’ala bless them for all of what they have done.
Finally, the writer realized that this “Skripsi” is still far from being perfect;
therefore, she hopes some suggestions or criticisms to make it more scientifically.
Then she wishes that this “Skripsi” would be benefical, particularly for her and for those who are interested in it.
Jakarta, April 2014
ix
SURAT PERNYATAAN KARYA SENDIRI ... iv
ABSTRACT ... v
ABSTRAK ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF TABLES ... xi
LIST OF APPENDICES... xii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. The Background of the Study ... 1
B. The Limitation of the Study ... 5
C. The Formulation of the Study ... 5
D. The Objective of the Study ... 5
E. The Significance of the Study ... 6
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 7
A. Errors ... 7
B. The Difference between Error and Mistake ... 7
C. Error Analysis ... 9
1. The Understanding of Error Analysis ... 9
2. The Procedure of Error Analysis... 9
3. The Goal of Error Analysis ... 11
x
2. The Kinds of Modal Auxiliary ... 18
3. Modal Auxiliary can and may ... 22
a) Can ... 22
b) May ... 24
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 26
A. The Research Methodology ... 26
1. The Place and Time of the Research ... 26
2. The Method of the Research ... 26
3. The Population of Sample ... 26
4. The Technique of Data Collecting ... 26
5. The Technique of Data Analysis ... 28
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS ... 29
B. The Research Finding ... 29
1. The Description of the Data ... 29
2. The Analysis of the Data ... 29
3. The Interpretation of the Data ... 38
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ... 40
A. The Conclusion ... 40
B. The Suggestion ... 40
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 42
xi
Table 4.1 Modal Auxiliaries Area and Each Item ... 29
Table 4.2 Table of Number of Classification of Errors Explanation ... 30
Table 4.3 Table of Number of Causes of Errors Explanation ... 31
Table 4.4 The Frequency and Percentage of the Students’ Errors in the
Meaning of Can ... 32
Table 4.5 The Frequency and Percentage of the Students’ Errors in the
Meaning of May ... 34
Table 4.6 The Frequency and Percentage of the Students’ Errors in the
xii
Appendix 3 The Students’ Answer Sheet ... 48
Appendix 4 Instrument of Interview (students) ... 52
Appendix 5 The Students’ Response to the Interview ... 53
Appendix 6 Instrument of Interview (teacher)... 56
Appendix 7 Surat Bimbingan Skripsi ... 57
Appendix 8 Surat Izin Penelitian ... 58
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the general account of the present study. It covers
the background of the study, the limitation of the study, the formulation of the
study, the objective of the study, and the significance of the study.
A. The Background of the Study
Languages have important roles in intellectual, emotional, and social
fields. Language as a communication mean is necessary to be able to use: in
the era of globalization the need of mastering foreign language, especially
English as an international language, is very urgent for Indonesia as a
developing country to communicate with other countries that use English
language. It is clearly that many learners need to speak and interact with
English multiplicity situation, as for foreign travel business or other
professional reason.1
Today English is the world most widely studied foreign language.
Five hundred years ago it was Latin. For it was dominant language of
education, commerce, religion, and government in the western world.2 It is
well known that English is the most widely language used all over the
world. In Indonesia English has become the first foreign language which is
taught in Indonesian school from elementary school up to university.
As a foreign language in Indonesia, English has an important position
and clearly needed by many learners to deliver thought and interact in a
variety of situations. When we learn a language we learn to communicate,
but with the ability to use English, students can develop their knowledge;
absorption, technology, science, art and relation with other countries.
To be able to communicate in English at the first time, the students
should not only have enough vocabulary but also have the ability to use
1
Mc. Donough. Jo and Christoper Show, Materials and Method in ELT, a Teachers Guide, (Cambridge: University Press, 1993), p.133
2 Richard, Jack C. And Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches and Method in Language
grammar. In other they did not make error in their using, but practically.
Although all students have learned grammar sometimes they still made error
to make sentence in their using.
The writer concludes that making errors during the process of second
language using is considered as a natural process. The teacher should
beware of these errors by analyzing the learners’ error itself.
Grammar is one of the language aspects which is taught to every
learner. It is the basic knowledge and important role in understanding the
English language. As Robert explained that “ grammar is a body of
generalization about how people says thing in order to make generalization,
we must agree on the meaning of terms for the thing we wish to talk about,
grammar accuracy is only part in delivering our message, where grammar is
merely a tool.”3 By using grammar we can delivery our message clearly and precisely.
In grammar, the rules are taught to construct a good sentence, then it
makes someone will be confident do communication with other people.
People who have good grammar automatically they have a good idea to
communicate. Ur noted that “grammar is defined as words are put together
to make correct sentences it does not only affect how the units of words are
combined in order to make correct sentences but also affect their meaning.”4 Without the knowledge of grammar the students will find many
problems to build up the sentence and express their idea in communication
activities. This is directly the same as Fernald ideas that “grammar is the
treatment of connected words as they are used for the expression of
thought.”5
As we know there are eight parts of speech in English grammar, there
are noun, pronoun, adverb, verb, adjective, conjunction, preposition, and
3 Paul Robert, Understanding Grammar, (New York: Harper& Row Publisher, 1954),
p.123
4 Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory, (London: Cambridge,
University Press 1996), p.75
5 James C. Fernald, English Grammar Simplified, (New York: Barners and Nobel Books,
interjection. One of parts of speech is verb. When we study a verb, we will
also study a “Modal Auxiliaries”. Modal Auxiliaries are of auxiliary verb
(or helping verb) that can modify the grammatical mood (or mode) of a
verb. Modal auxiliaries is a verb such as can, may or will that is used with
another verb (not a modal) to express possibility, permission, intention, etc.6
These auxiliaries add to the verb a special semantic component such
as expressing ability, possibility, permission, advice, necessity, lack of
necessity, prohibition, asking for assistance, making logical conclusions,
giving instructions, making suggestions and stating preferences. English
learners need to be able to express the various meaning of modals as soon as
possible in their communication with others.
Modal auxiliaries have special grammatical features such as no
infinitive after verb, and have no- s after the third singular. Most modal
verbs have not only a grammatical function, but also a dictionary meaning,
for instance, could can mean past ability, but that is not its only meaning.
Another meaning of could is possibility.
The writer is interested in discussing Modal Auxiliaries because based
on her observation in the class, students get difficulty in using Modal
Auxiliaries especially can and may in their sentences or paragraph. They do
not understand what modal auxiliary is used. This difficult make causes
them to errors in their writing.
In using Modal Auxiliaries, the students have to know the kind of
modal auxiliaries that used in the right way in the particular situation what
they mean, and the form of modal auxiliaries. Because of the problem,
therefore, the students think that modal auxiliaries are difficult. They have
to memorize each meaning of Modal Auxiliaries and understand the form of
its.
Here are the examples of student’s error in using Modal Auxiliaries
6 A. S. Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Sixth
She can to help me.
The above sentence is wrong because the students use to infinitive
after auxiliary can, whereas according to English structure auxiliaries are
not followed by to infinitive but followed by infinitive without to, so the
right sentence is:
She can help me.
And in other sentence:
She cans swim well.
The above sentence is wrong because the students add –s after
auxiliary can, whereas modal auxiliaries have no –s on the third person
singular, so the right sentence is:
She can swim well.
The writer concludes that one of the reasons of errors is the difficulty
to understand the form of the modal auxiliaries for Indonesian learners,
because Indonesian language does not have modality to express ability,
possibility, probability, etc. as English does.
After finding some problems mentioned above, the writer concludes
that the problem is that the students are not aware of how to use modal
auxiliaries correctly. The writer sees that there are so many errors that the
students have made. The students don’t use these auxiliaries properly and are still being confused to use or choose the right auxiliaries in writing and
communicating.
Therefore, the writer tries to analyze the students’ errors in using
modal auxiliaries especially can and may, so the writer makes a research
entitled “AN ANALYSIS ON STUDENTS’ ERROR IN USING CAN
AND MAY” (A Case Study at the Second Grade Students of MTs Negeri
The writer chooses can and may because most of students still confuse
in using can and may and most of materials about modal auxiliary in
English textbook are using can and may.
B.The Limitation of the Study
In this study, the writer focused on analyzing the students’ errors in
using modal auxiliary can and may. To be more focused, the problem is
limited on analyzing the students’ errors in using modal auxiliary can and may that are based on Betty Azar’s grammatical error classification. Here
are the classifications: singular-plural, word form, word choice, verb tense,
add word, omit word, word order, incomplete sentence, spelling
punctuation, capitalization, article, meaning not clear, and run on sentence.7
C.The Formulation of the Study
Based on the background of the study, the writer would like to
formulate the problems as follows:
1. What grammatical errors did The MTs Negeri Parung, Bogor’s Second
Grade Students make in using can and may?
2. What are the sources of the students grammatical errors?
D.The Objective of the Study
This study is aimed to find empirical evidence of major errors in using
can and may which the Second Grade students of MTs Negeri Parung,
Bogor made in the even semester of the 2010- 2011 academic year.
7 Betty Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar 2nd Edition, (New
E.The Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is to broaden the writer’s perception of
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this chapter, the writer explains some theories that still relate to the topic.
First, the writer explains the definition of error analysis that consist of the
understanding of error analysis, goal of error analysis, types of error, sources of
error, and differences between error and mistake. Second, she explains definition
of Modal Auxiliary, kinds of Modal Auxiliary, and Modal Auxiliary can and may.
A. ERRORS
Errors are the flawed side of learner speech or writing. They are those parts
of conversation or composition that deviate from some selected norm of mature
language performance.1 Making errors is an inevitable part of learning. It is
impossible that learners never make any errors in language learning process.
Students can make errors when they write or speak and it is natural. The errors
that they make are even potentially important for the understanding of language
and it is as a part of learning process.
The study of errors is carried out by means of Error Analysis (EA). In the
1970s, error analysis supplanted contrastive analysis, which sought to predict the
errors that learners make by identifying the linguistic differences between their
first language and the target language.2
B. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ERROR AND MISTAKE
When we talk about error it is always connected to mistake. Some people
even think that the term of error and mistake are the same and they commonly
cannot see the distinction between both of them. Error and mistake are different.
Jacek Fisiak in his book; Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher mad
1
Heidi Dulay, Marina Burt, and Stephen Krashen, Language Two, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 138
2 Rod Ellis, The Study of Second Language Acquisition, (New York: Oxford University
a distinction between them: Error are systematic, consistent deviances
characteristic of the learner’s linguistic system at a given stage of learning. Mistakes are deviations due to performance factors such as memory limitations
(e.g. spelling pronunciations, fatigue, emotional strain, etc. they are typically
random and are readily corrected by the learner when his attention is drawn to
them.3
Mistakes are skin to slips of the tongue. That is, they are generally
one-time-only events. The learner who makes a mistake is able to recognize it is a mistake
and correct it if necessary. On the other hand, an error is systematic. That is, it is
likely to occur repeatedly and is not recognized by the learner as an error. The
learner in this case has incorporated erroneous form from the persectives of the
target language into his or her system. 4
Hubbard et al. also make difference between error and mistake. “Errors
caused by lack of knowledge about the target language English or by incorrect
hypothesis about it; and unfortunate mistake caused by temporary lapse of
memory, confusion, slip of the tongue and so on.”5 In other words, Ellis stated
that “Error is a lack of knowledge and mistake is the students’ posses’ knowledge of the correct form and it is just slipping up”.6
Brown also gave the similar opinion about error and mistake. According to
him, an error is a noticeable from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflects
the competence of the learner. And a mistake is “slip”, a failure to utilize a known
system correctly. An error cannot be self corrected, while mistake can be self
corrected if the deviation is pointed out to speaker. 7
Based on the opinions above the writer summed up that error caused by lack
of knowledge, the student did not know what were they wrote and they could not
3 Jacek Fisiak, Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher, (Oxford: Pergamon
Press, 1981), p. 224
4 Susan M. Gass, Larry Selinker, Second Language Acquistion: An Introductory Course,
(New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2008), p.102
5 Peter Hubbard, et, al,. A Training Course for TEFL, (New York: Oxford Univeristy
Press, 1983), p. 134
6 Rod Ellis, The Study of Second Language Acquisition, Second Edition, (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2008), p.17
7 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching, (New Jersey:
recognize it unless other people or their teacher corrected them and it cannot be
self corrected. While mistake happened because temporary laps of memory and
also slip of the tongue, actually the students have known about what they write
but they just “slipup” and they can correct and recognize their own mistakes.
C. ERROR ANALYSIS
1. The Understanding of Error Analysis
Learning a target language (English) is different from learning
one’s mother tongue. There are some opinions about error analysis.
Brown in his book stated that “Errors can be observed, analyzed, and
classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learner,
led to a surge of study of learner’s errors, called error analysis”. 8 It
seems this concept is the same as the one proposed by Crystal “Error
Analysis is a technique for identifying, classifying, and systematically
interpreting the unacceptable forms produced by someone learning a
foreign language, using any of the principles and procedures provided by
linguistic”9 Ellis explained in her book that “Error analysis was one of
the first methods used to investigate learner language”.10
From the definitions above, the writer summarize that error
analysis is an activity to identify, classify, and interpreted or describe the
errors made by someone in speaking or in writing and it is carried out to
obtain information on common difficulties faced by someone in
speaking or in writing English sentences.
2. The Procedure of Error Analysis
There are some procedures in analyzing the learner errors. Corder
suggests in Ellis the following steps in error analysis; collection of
8 Brown (1987), op.cit., p.259
9 D. Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1987), p. 78
sample of learner language, identification of errors, description of
errors, explanation of errors and evaluation of errors.11
First, collection of a sample of learner language. It is deciding
what sample of learner language to use for the analysis and how to
collect these samples. We can identify three board types of error analysis
according to the size of the sample.
Second, identification of errors. After the learner language has
been collected, the errors have to be identified. To identify errors we
have to compare the sentences learners produce with what seem to be
normal or ‘correct’ sentences in the target language which correspond
with them.12
Third, description of errors. When the errors have been identified,
they can be described. There are several ways of doing this. One way is
to classify errors into grammatical categories. Another way might be to
try to identify general ways in which the learner’s utterances differ from
the reconstructed target language utterances. 13 As Ellis stated that“The
description of learner errors involves a comparison of the learner’s
idiosyncratic utterances with a reconstruction of those utterances in the
target language”.14
Fourth, explaination of errors. After the errors have been identified
and described, the next step is to try to explain them. Explanation is
concerned with establishing the source of the error, i.e. accounting for
why it was made.15
At last, evaluation of errors. Because the purpose of the error
analysis to help learners learn second language, so there is a need to
evaluate errors. It involves a consideration of the effect that errors have
11 Ellis (2008), op.cit.,p. 48
12 Rod Ellis, Second Language Acquisition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997),
p.16
13 Ibid p. 18
on the person (s) addressed.16 The design of error evaluation studies
involves decisions on who the addressed (i.e. the judges) will be, what
errors they will be asked to judge, and how they will be asked to judge
them.17
Based on the explanation above, the writer summarize that the
procedure of error is the several steps to carry out an error analysis.
There are collection of sample of learner language, identification of
errors, description of errors, explanation of errors and evaluation of
errors.
3. Goal of Error Analysis
The most typical use of the error analysis is the teachers. It is
designing teacher pedagogical material and strategies. Analysis is as a
tool for investigating how learners acquire a second language and to
provide the feedback value for the teacher.18Dullay stated that studying
students’ errors serves two major purposes:19
a. It provides data from which inferences about the nature of the
language learning process can be made.
b. It indicates to teachers and curriculum developers which part of the
target language students have most difficulty producing correctly and
which errors types detract most learner’s ability to communicate
effectively.
4. Types of Error
Each student has different types in making errors when they write
paragraphs. According to Azzar in his book, types of errors fall into
16 Ellis (2008), op.cit., p. 63 17 Ibid
18 Ellis, (2008), op.cit, p. 45
19 Heidi Dulay, Marina Burt, and Stephen Krashen, Language Two, (New York: Oxford
fourteen categories; singular-plural, word form, word choice, verb tense,
addition, omission, word order, incomplete sentence, spelling,
punctuation, capitalization, article, meaning not clear, and run-on
sentence.20
Table 2.1
Guide for Correcting Errors
No. Types of Error Example of Error Error Correction
1. Singular- Plural He have been here for
No. Types of Error Example of Error Error Correction
appear in a well-formed utterance. Omission can occur morphology.
Learner often omits the third person singular morpheme –s, the
progressive –ing, the plural marker –s and the past tense inflection-ed. A
learner could say, for example: “A strange happen to me yesterday.” In syntax, learners may omit certain elements, which are obligatory, for
namely double markings, regularization, and simple addition.
1) Double markings
Double markings are two items rather than one that is marked for
the same feature. Dulay states that “This error is the defined as the
failure to delete certain items which are required in some linguistic
constructions but not in others.” In most English sentence, there is only one rule that is used in a sentence. For example: the rule of
simple past tense in English is change the verb of a sentence to past
form, but if the sentence is negative, the rule is not used. For
example: “she did invited me in her birthday party yesterday.” In this sentence, there are two markers for the past sentence, this error
is called double marking error. The true sentence is “she did not
invite me in her birthday party yesterday.”
2) Regularization
A rule typically applies to a class item, such as the class of main
verbs or the class of noun. There are both regular and irregular forms
and constructions in a language, learners apply the rules used to
produce the regular one to those are irregular. For example: “I getted
the blue jacket from my sister yesterday”. The verb get is irregular verb, so the true is got. In this case, the learners made error in this
type because they apply the rule of regular verb.
3) Simple addition
If an addition error is not a regularization and not a double
marking, it is a called a simple addition. There is no significance
characteristic of this error. The example of this error is: “That a cat
is mine”, it is the simple addition error in using article a. and “My computer do not work properly”, this is the example of simple
addition error in using auxiliary do for does.
c. Misformation
Misformation errors are characterized by the use of the wrong form of
the morpheme or structure. It classified into three parts:
1) Regularization
Regularization errors occur when the learner apply the rules of
regular to irregular form. For example: runned for run, speaked for
2) Archi-form
Archi-form is the selection of one member of a class of forms to
represent others in the class. For example in the sentence: “I’ ve many
questions to ask him”. 3) Alternating form
As the learner’s vocabulary and grammar grow, the use of archi -forms often gives way to the apparently fairly free alternation of
various members of a class with each other. It means that the more
grammar that the learners get, the high frequency of error that the
learner made. For example: “I like he”. This sentence is example of
errors in using pronoun.
d. Misordering
Misordering errors are characterized by the incorrect placement of
morpheme or group of morpheme in an utterance. For example: “what
daddy is doing?” the correct one is “what is daddy doing?”
5. Sources of Error
Brown claims that there are three major sources of error. He labels
interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer, and context of learning.22
a. Interlingual transfer
Interlingual transfer happened because the native language or mother
language interference. In these early stages, before the system of second
language is familiar, the native language is the only linguistic system in
previous experience upon which the learner can draw.23 This opinion is
supported by Richards et, al. that “Interlingual error is an error which
results from language transfer, that is, which is caused by the learner’s
native language.”24
22 Brown (1987), op cit., p.223 23 Ibid p. 224
24 Jack C. Richard, Platt John, and Plat Heidi, Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching
b. Intralingual transfer
Intralingual transfer (the transfer within the target language itself).
Researcher have found that the early stages of language learning are
characterized by a predominance of interference (interlingual transfer),
but once learner have begun to acquire parts of the new system, more
and more intralingual transfer generalization within the target language
is manifested.25
Richards et. al. gave the same opinion that “ An Intralanguage error
is one which results from faulty or partial learning of the target
language, rather than from language transfer.”26 Intralangual errors may be caused by the influence of one target language item upon another. For
example a learner may produce He is comes, based on a blend of the
English structures He is coming or He comes.
c. Context of learning
“ Context” refers, for example, to classroom with its teacher and its
materials in the case of school learning or the social situation in the case
of untutored second language learning. In a classroom context the
teacher or the textbook can lead the learner make faulty hypotheses
about the language. Students often make error because of a misleading
explanation from the teacher, faulty presentation of a structure or word
in a textbook, or even because of a pattern that was rottenly memorized
in a drill but properly contextualized.27
As quoted by Hubbard, Corder point out that there are three major
causes of error. Those are mother tongue interference, overgeneralizations,
and errors encouraged by teaching or method.28
older learners experience considerable difficulty. The sound system
(phonology) and the grammar of the first language impose themselves
on the new language and this leads to a foreign pronunciation, faulty
grammatical patterns and occasionally to wrong choice of vocabulary.
b. Overgeneralization
The mentalist theory claims that the learner processes new
language data in his mind and produces rules for its production, based on
evidence. Where the data are inadequate or the evidence only partial,
such rules may well produce the following patterns. “Where you went
yesterday?”, and “where did go yesterday?”.
c. Error encouraged by teaching material or method
Errors appear to be induced by the teaching process itself. Error is
evidence of failure of ineffective teaching or lack oil control. If the
material is well chosen, graded and presented with meticulous care, there
should be any error. It is fairly easy to accept this in the early stages of
language learning when controls are applied in the shape of substitution
tables, conversion exercises of a mechanical nature and guided sentence
patterns, but more difficult at later stages. However, it might be salutary
for as bear in mind the possibility of some of our students’ error being due to our own teaching.
D. MODAL AUXILIARY
1. The Understanding of Modal Auxiliary
“Modals express special meaning such as ability, necessity, and
permission. Because English learners need to be able to express the various
meanings of modals as soon as possible in their communication with others,
modals are among the first grammar topics taught in most English language
courses”.29
29 Ron Cowan, The Teacher’s Grammar of English: A Course Book and Reference Guide,
Meanwhile, Azar stated that “modal auxiliaries generally express a
speaker’s attitudes or “moods”. For example, modal can express that a
speaker feels something necessary, advisable, permissible, possible, or
probable; and in addition, they can convey the strength of these attitudes”.30
In addition, according to Janet Ross and Gladys Doty explained that
“auxiliary verbs called modals are used with the simple form of the verb to express hypothetical conditions and conjectures as well as attitudes”.31
Based on the opinions above the writer concluded that modal
auxiliaries are functional words that help verbs to express specific meaning
such as ability, probability, possibility, obligatory, etc. Such modal
auxiliaries are can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, and ought
to.
2. Kinds of Modal Auxiliaries
According to Azar “the types of modal auxiliaries can be divided into
two types. First, modal auxiliaries can, could, had better, may, might, must,
ought to, shall, should, will, and would. Second, similar expressions: be able
to, be going to, be supposed to, be to, have to, have got to, used to.32“Modal
auxiliaries express concepts or attitudes relating to recommendation,
obligation, necessity, and prohibition; permission and refusal; possibility,
expectation, probability and certainty; promise and intention; ability and
willingness”.33
Swan stated that modal verbs have several points in common which
make them quite different from other verbs:
30 Betty Schramfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, Second Edition,
(New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents), 1989. p. 68
31 Janet Ross, Gladys Doty, Writing English: A Composition Text in English as a Foreign
Language, Second Edition,(New York: Harper & Row Publishers), 1975. p. 91
32 Azar (1989), op cit., p. 68
33 B. D. Graver, Advanced English Practice, Second Edition, (Oxford: Oxford
a. Modal verbs are not used (except sometimes in the negative) to talk
about things which are definitely happening, or have definitely happened.
They are used when we say that we expect things to happen, or that
events are possible, or necessary, or improbable, or impossible, or when
we say that things did not happen, or that we are not sure whether they
happened.
e.g.: I can’t swim.
She could be in London or Paris or Tokyo- nobody knows.
I may come tomorrow if I have time.
You might havetold me Frances was ill.
What would you do if you had a free year?
I think they should have consulted a doctor earlier.
b. Modal verbs have no –s on the third person singular; questions and
negatives are made without do; they are followed by the infinitive
without to of other verbs (except for ought).
e.g.: You needn’tlook at me like that.
He must behere by nine o’clock.
Can your mother drive?
That ought to be enough.
c. Modal verbs have no infinitives, and other expressions are used instead,
when necessary.
e.g.: I’d like to be able to skate.
You are going to have to work earlier.
d. Modal verbs have no past forms. Could and would are used with past
meanings in some cases (but never to say that particular events actually
happened on define occasion).
e. Modal verbs can be used with perfect infinitives to talk about things
which did not happen, or which we are not sure about, in the past.
Her car may have broken down.34
Actually, there are two groups of auxiliary verb. The first includes the
functional auxiliary verbs be, do, have and go.35 They do not really have
“meanings” of this kind when they are used as auxiliary verbs. 36 All of these verbs can also serve as main verbs as well as auxiliaries.
Examples: I do not understand your question.
We are going to visit my uncle.37
The second includes the modals auxiliaries can, may, might, must,
should, and so on. They differ from the other auxiliaries (do, be, have, and
go) in that they have no s-forms, or ing-forms, or participles. Furthermore,
they so called past forms of modals sometimes express the same meaning as
the present or simple forms. They also occur in statements which refer to
future time. Thus, the form of a modal does not necessarily indicate the time
reference of the sentence in which it is used.38 There serve both as structural
signals and have a meaning of their own. They are never used as main
verbs.
Examples: We can see the zoo some weekday.
Can we see the zoo some weekday?
You shouldn’t try to go there on Sunday.
Should we try to go there on Sunday?39
According to Cowan, modals can be classified according to form and
meaning. The form of modals can be categorized into three categories; pure
modals, marginal modals, and semi modals.
34 Michael swan, Practical English Usage, (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1980.
p.388
35 Eugene J. Hall, Grammar For Use, (Jakarta: Binarupa Aksara, 1993), p. 11 36 Swan (1980), op cit., p. 91
37 Hall (1993), loc cit.
38 Jean Praninskas, Rapid Review of English Grammar, Second Edition, (New Delhi:
Prantice Hall of India, 1977), p. 234
The first category, pure modals, is comprised of verbs such as can,
could, and may. It display all four the characteristics mentioned such as
contraction, inversion, repetition, in resorts and tags, and invariant form.40
Nine central modal auxiliary verbs are used to express modality: can, could,
may, might, shall, should, will, would, must. These are invariant forms
taking the role of auxiliary; they precede the negative particle not in
negation and precede the subject in yes-no questions. They are followed in
the verb phrase by a bare infinitive verb. In general, modals cannot co-occur
with each other in the verb phrase; however, some regional dialects allow
modals in series (such as might could or might should).41
The second category, marginal modals, has only three members- dare,
need, and ought to. They are classified as marginal because they display
only two of syntactic characteristic of pure modals.
The modals in the third category, semi modals42 (other terms used for
these expressions are ‘quasi-modals’ and ‘periphrastic modals’)43, are fixed idiomatic expression beginning with have, had, or be – for example, have
to, had better, and be going to.44
In addition, there are several multiword expression, such as be able
to, be obliged to, and be willing to, that have meanings similar to those of
modals.45
Modals are all “defective” verbs in the sense that they do not have all
the principal parts of English verbs. They also have meanings of their own,
which separates them from the functional auxiliaries. The modals have a
dual use. First, they have meanings of their own; and second, they also are
40 Cowan (2008), op cit., p. 295
41 Dougles Biber., et al, Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English,(London:
Edinburg Gate, 2000), p. 483
42 Cowan (2008), loc cit.
43 Biber., et al (2000), op cit,. p. 484 44 Cowan (2008), loc cit.
used like the functional auxiliaries to form negatives and questions.46 All of
these modals can also be grouped according to the meanings they express.
Many modals have meanings in addition to basic meanings related to these
groupings. In Basic Meaning of Modals, modals can be categorized into
three groups according to meaning.
a. Modals of ability, permission, and possibility. This group includes
the modals can, could, may and might.
b. Modals of advice and necessity. This group includes must, should,
dare, need, have to, had better, had best, have got to, ought to, and be
supposed to.
c. Modals for expressing future time. This group of modals includes
shall, will, would, and be going to.47
3. Modal Auxiliary “Can” and “May” a. Can
Can is one of modal auxiliaries that use to assist verbs to express
ability, possibility, permission, offering, request and order and it is followed
by the bare infinitive. The past tense form of can, namely, could. Can is
used informally to request permission, especially if the speaker is talking to
someone she/he knows fairly well.48
Like other modal auxiliaries can is usual placed before the predicates
of the sentence in positive sentence, for example: He can swim. In negative
sentence, modals need “not” between the modal and the verb, for example:
He can not swim. In interrogative sentences, they precede the subject of the
sentence, for example: Can he swim?.
Can used to express:
1) Ability
Can is used to indicate the possession of ability in general,
or being in a position, in particular circumstances, to perform
the activity denoted by the main verb.49 Can means “be able to
do something”, or “know how to do something”.50 Can express the ability to do something in the immediate present or in the
future.
a) Present ability
e.g.: George can read English quite well now.
b) Future ability
e.g.: I can help you next week.
2) Permission
Can is used in statements implying permission as well as
ability.51 It is used to request permission to do something. Can is
possible and can be used for the present or future and can is the
most informal, and is actually better than may in requests for
permission involving the negative.52
The following details are the use of can to express
permission.
a) Asking for permission
e.g.: Can I see your railway time-table?53
b) Giving permission
e.g.: You can go home now.
3) Possibility
49 Graver (1971), op cit., p. 8 50 Cowan (2008), op cit,. p. 297
51 Janet Ross, Writing English: A Composition Text in English as a Foreign Language,
Second Edition,(New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975), p. 238
52 James A. W. Heffernan, John E. Lincoln, Writing A College Handbook, Second
Edition, (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1982), p. 401
53 A. S. Hornby, Guide to Patterns and Usage in English, Second Edition, (Oxford:
Another meaning of can is to show possibility of
Can is also used to make someone to do something, or to
orders someone to do as they are orders. For example, in
restaurant, when customers make an order, they may ask waiters
to bring them meals, drinks, desert, cigarette, etc.
e.g.: Can you come here, please?
b. May
May is one of modal auxiliaries that used to express possibility. The
past tense form of may, namely, Might. In Formal style, it is also used in
statements that give authoritative permission.55 It expresses permission in
formal usage or to indicate that something is allowed. Present or future time
is indicated.
According to Jannet Ross and Gladys Doty (1975), may sometimes
indicates conjecture about the future. When used in this sense, the past tense
is indicated by may have, for example: It may rain tomorrow. (There is a
strong possibility) and It may have rained while we were gone. (The speaker
is not sure whether it did or not).56
Like other modal auxiliaries may is usual placed before the predicates
of the sentence in positive sentence, for example: You may go now. In
54 A. J. Thomphson, A. V. Mariret, A Practical English Grammar, Third Edition,
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 119
negative sentence, modals need “not” between the modal and the verb, for
example: You may not go now. In interrogative sentences, they precede the
subject of the sentence, for example: May you go now?.
May used to express:
1) Possibility
e.g.: He may tell his wife.57
2) Permission
e.g.: The children may play here.58
From above explanation, it is obviously clear that “can”and “may”,
can carry many functions or meanings. Can may be used to express
ability, to express permission, to show possibility, to offers something, and
to make a request or orders, and may can be used to express possibility and
permission.
57 Thomphson, and Mariret (1986), op cit., p. 131
58 Robby Lou, English Tenses and How to Use The,. (Jakarta: Mobile English Plus,
26
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the research of methodology which is consist of the
place and the time, the method, the population, the sample of the research,
technique of data collecting and also technique of data analysis.
A.The Research Methodology
1. The Place and Time of the Research
The writer did the research at MTs Negeri Parung which is located on Jl.
Raya Lebak Wangi, Parung- Bogor. The research was carried on May 6th –
may 20th 2011.
2. The Method of the Research
In this research, the writer used descriptive analysis method and used the
procedures of errors analysis itself. This method is purposed to analyze the
students’ errors by interviewing and giving them the test to collect the data. Next, it involved accumulating, analyzing, and classifying data with various
techniques, also interpreting data. On the final step, the writer had to conclude
the result of research.
3. The Population and Sample
The population of this research was the second grade students of MTs
Negeri Parung Bogor. There are 193 students which are divided into five
classes; VIII-1, VIII-2, VIII-3, VIII-4, and VIII-5. The writer used purposive
sampling, in which she chose VIII-2 class as the sample of this research. There
are 40 students.
4. The Technique of Data Collecting
In collecting the data, the writer used two techniques; they are test and
a. The test
The writer gave the test to know the frequency of errors in using
modal auxiliaries can and may. The test which consisted of 30 items.
There are 20 questions of multiple choices and 10 questions of fill in
the blank. The test was divided into two parts, 15 items were about the
meaning and the function of modal auxiliary can and may. And the
tests were about the verb which could be used in modal auxiliaries
sentence or called the form of modal auxiliaries. The distribution of
test could be seen in the table below.
Table 3.1
Modal Auxiliaries and the number of each items.
No. Modal Auxiliaries Number of item
1. Can 8
2. May 7
3. Form 15
Total 30 items
The form here is meant the verb could be used in modal auxiliaries
(can and may) sentence or the sentence pattern of modal auxiliaries.
b. Interview
The writer did interview to some students who got bad and good score
in order to know the reasons why students make errors in using modal
auxiliaries especially can and may. She took 20 students of class
VIII-2 to interview which are about 50% of the sample. For the reinforcing
the data, she also interviewed the English teacher. The instrument for
5. The Technique of Data Analysis
After collecting the data from the test, the writer analyzed the students’
errors by using descriptive analysis technique (percentage) and quantitative,
because the writer describes some students’ errors and uses numerical data in this “skripsi” which is described in the table of percentage the writer used this formula:1
P = F x 100% F + C
P = Percentage
F = Frequency of Errors
C = Correct Answers
1
Anas Sudijono, Pengantar Statistik Pendidikan, (Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS
This chapter presents about the finding of the research. It covers the
description of the data, the analysis of the data and the interpretation of the data.
A. RESEARCH FINDINGS
1. The Description of the Data
In doing her research, the writer took class VIII-2 for her sample. The
numbers of students in class VIII-2 are 42 students. When the test is given, 2
students were sick so the writer took 40 students in this research. And she took
20 students of class VIII-2 to interview which are about 50% of the sample.
The test covers the meaning and the form of modal auxiliaries (can and
may) which consists of 30 items, 20 items for multiple choices and 10 items for
fill the blank. And the test was divided into two parts, 15 items were about the
meaning of can and may, and 15 items were about the form of can and may.
The following tables are classifications of the meaning, and the form of
Modal Auxiliaries can and may.
Table 4.1
Modal auxiliaries area and each item
No. Modal Auxiliaries Number of item Total Number of
Question
1. The meaning of Can 1, 7, 8, 11, 16, 22, 24,
25, 26, 27
10 questions
The meaning of May 2, 3, 5, 10, 14, 21, 23,
28, 29, 30
10 questions
2. The form of can 6, 12, 15, 17, 20 5 questions
The form of may 4, 9, 13, 18, 19 5 questions
Next, the writer will analyze the students’ errors. After she analyzes some
errors, then, she will count the number of errors by tabulating and calculating
changing the result of errors into percentage. By calculating the errors, she
knows the students’ score. Then, she does the interview not only to the students
who get the bad and the good score but also to the English teacher of class
VIII-2.
2. The Analysis of the Data
After the writer did the research, she got frequency of students’ errors of
modal auxiliaries can and may; he would like to analyze what errors existing
on all items, and why errors occurred in multiple choice and fill in the blank.
The table below explaining the errors explanation in entire parts, as follows:
Table 4.2
Table of Number of Classification of Errors Explanation
From the table 4.4 above, there are 335 errors committed in word choice
with 81.31% because the students put inappropriate words to be used in a
sentences. There are 42 errors committed in verb tense with 10.20% because
the students might not know the correct tense in the use of can and may. At
last, There are 35 errors committed in addition with 8.49% because the
students add inappropriate words in the form of can and may. Here the
explanation regarding causes of errors described in the tables below: No. Types of Error Number of
Errors
Percentage of
Errors
1. Word Choice 335 81.31%
2. Verb Tense 42 10.20%
3. Addition 35 8.49%
Table 4.3
Table of Number of Causes of Errors Explanation
Based on the table 4.5 above, there are 271 errors caused by inter-lingual
transfer with 65.78% because the students might be influenced by their mother
tongue influences in terms of patterns, systems, or rules. Then, there are 68
errors caused by intra-lingual transfer with 16.50% because the students might
strive to derive the rules behind the data to which has ben exposed by the
students, and may develop hypotheses related neither to their mother tongue
nor to their target language.
Also there are 73 errors caused by context learning with 17.72% because
the teachers or the textbooks may lead the students to create faulty hypotheses
about the language. Students might make errors because of a misleading
explanation from either to the teachers, textbooks, or patterns memorizing.
Here is the explanation about frequency and percentage of the students’ errors
in the meaning of can below:
No. Causes of Errors Number of Causes of Errors
Percentage of Causes of
Errors 1. Inter-lingual
Transfer
271 65.78%
2. Intra-lingual
Transfer
68 16.50%
3. Context of Learning 73 17.72%
Table 4.4
To find out the percentage of the students’ errors in the meaning of can, the writer used the formula below:
From the data above, the writer can conclude that the average of the
students’ errors in using can is 36.75%, and it can be concluded that the rest is 63.25%, which means that the majority of the students did not do errors on the
test.
After the writer got the description of the meaning of can above, she
would like to analyze the data description of the students’ errors in the meaning
of may, as follows:
Table 4.5
The Frequency and Percentage of the Students’ Errors in the
To find out the percentage of the students’ errors in the meaning of may, the writer used the formula below:
P = Frequency of Errors x 100%
students’ errors in using may is 46.05%, and it can be concluded that the rest is 53.95%, which means that the majority of the students did not do errors on the
test.
After the writer got the description of the meaning of may above, she
would like to analyze the data description of the students’ errors in the form of can and may, as follows:
Table 4.6
To find out the percentage of the students’ errors in the form of can and may , the writer used the formula below:
P = Frequency of Errors x 100%
students did not do errors on the test.
3. The Interpretation of the Data
Based on the analysis of the results above, it can be observed that word
choice errors are the highest with 335 errors and the percentage is 81.31%. it
means that the most students choose words that should not be put in sentence
on the test. Next, there are 42 errors in verb tense with 10.20% and 35 errors in
addition with 8.49%.
In addition, it can be concluded that inter-lingual transfer is the cause of
influences of the students’ mother tongue in using can and may. At last, the context of learning is at the second position with 17.72%, and there is
intra-lingual transfer with 16.50%.
The writer summarizes that the errors made by the students are word
choice with the percentage is 81.31%, verb tense with 10.20%, and addition
with 8.49%. Then, 65.78% of the students make the errors caused by
inter-lingual transfer in which the systems, rules, and patterns of the students’ native
language distract their target language. Next, 16.50% of students make the
errors caused by context of learning in which either the teachers, textbooks, or
the patterns are improperly contextualized. At last, there are 17.72% of
students make the errors caused by intra-lingual transfer in which the students
40
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
This chapter presents about the conclusion of the research and the
suggestion for the teachers and the students.
A. The Conclusion
Based on the explanation on research findings, so the errors made by
students in using can and may consist of word choice with the percentage 81.31%,
verb tense with the percentage 10.20%, and addition with the percentage 8.49%.
The reason why the students make errors in using can and may caused by
inter-lingual transfer in which the systems, rules, and patterns of the students’
native language distract their target language with the percentage 65.78%. Next,
the students make the errors caused by context of learning in which either the
teachers, textbooks, or the patterns are improperly contextualized with the
percentage16.50%. At last, the students make the errors caused by intra-lingual
transfer in which the students create the hypotheses which are not related to their
first and target language with the percentage 17.72%.
B. The Suggestion
Based on the students’ errors in using can and may, the writer would like to give some suggestions as follow:
1. For the teacher:
a. Teachers should give motivation for students in learning can and may
because most students assume that English is one of the most difficult
subject matters in their study.
b. The English teacher should explain the rules of grammatical form
especially modal auxiliaries can and may clearly until student understand
the material they learn.
c. Teachers should give more exercises and practices to students in learning
d. Teachers sometimes teach English by using games in order for students to
understand more and they will feel funny when studying English,
especially about modal auxiliary can and may.
2. For students:
a. The Students have to study more about Modal auxiliaries to make it easy
to understand.
b. The students not only have to listen to the teacher’s explanation but also to
practice what the materials have already been explained in their home.
c. The Students have to know and memorize each meaning of modal auxiliry
especially can and may.
42
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