Policy Analysis of Coastal Ecotourism Development on Muara Angke Mangrove Ecosystem, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia

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POLICY ANALYSIS OF COASTAL ECOTOURISM

DEVELOPMENT ON MUARA ANGKE MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEM, JAKARTA BAY, INDONESIA

By

:

MYINT THU ZAR

(SPL 99803)

COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT STUDY PROGRAM

GRADUATE PROGRAM

BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

BOGOR INDONESIA

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POLICY ANALYSIS OF COASTAL ECOTOURISM

DEVELOPMENT ON

M U A M

ANGKE MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEM, JATKARTA BAY, INDONESIA

By:

Niyint

Thu

Zar

SPL

99803

Thesis Submitted to Graduate School of

Bogor Agricultural University (IF'B), Indonesia In Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science In Coastal and Marine Resources

Management Study Program

COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT STUDY PROGRAM GRADUATE PROGRAM

BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSIl17 BOGOR INDONESTA

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Myint T11u Zar. Policy Analysis of coastal ecotourism development on Rluara

Angke Mangrove Ecosystem, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia. Under Supervision of Dr. Ir.

Dietriech G. Bengen, DEA., as a Chairman and Prof. Dr. Ir. Daniel R. Monintja as

a member.

ABSTRACT

The mangrove ecosystem is one of important ecosystems in the tropics and has a great econcmic and -cotourism poientizls. The :nultip!e roles of xczgrovc: ecosystems i?. coastal C C G ~ O U ~ ~ S ; ~ ~ areas are aow v?e!l recognize in Indonesia. Ecoto!~xi.sm i:: ecologically sustainabie tourism that related with forest environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservztion.

Information on mangrove ecosystems of the Jakarta Bzy is mostly concerned with the flora and fauna aspects. The mangrove ecosystems in the area have a vcly limited diversity. The importance of Inangrove forest p:oductivity in the function of the coastal ecosystem of Jakarta Bay cannot ignore. A lot of development activities have iiegatively afiected t!iis area. The balance between economic gain and environment socizl loss should be weigh?ed ill fairor of the longer - term objectives so that estzblishment of susiaiiiable resources deveIopment will not be ignored. Attention should also pay to the impact of coastal ecotourism development on the sustainability and conservancy of mangrove ecosystem; This research conducted from September to November 2001 at Muara Angke of North Jakarta in Jakarta Bay. This research aimed to:

(1). To examine the environmental suitability of mangrove ecosystem and coastal area for ecotourism development,

(2). To obtain the optirnum plans for the associated enterprise in relation to variables and parameters which relate the potential use of physical, economic and institutional restraints while considering the objectives of entrepreneur and policy planners,

(3). To recommend the appropriate mangrove areas for ecotourism that

would have the least effect for the coastal environnent and the social activities of the local people.

Geographic Information System (GIs) method used for evaluating the mangrove

ecosystem and Analytical Hierarchy Process approach used for resolving the spatialfland use conflict to evaluate policy. The software program Expert Choice (3.1)

has incorporated in the AHP methodology and enables the analyst to structure the hierarchy and resolve the problem using absolute measurement as appropriate.

The result showed that all along the Northern coast of what now is DKT Jakarta was originally mangrove forest ecosystem, complete with all richness of Bio-diversity attained in it. However Indonesia should utilize institutional facility presently available as soon as possible, such as forestry agency, tourism agency, and other related institutions, which can act professionally and responsible in the effort to develop coastal ecotourism better, especially mangrove forest ecosystem, therefore a coastal ecotourism project can be sustainable.

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Myint Thu Zar. Anrrlisa Kebijaknrz nrtrgenni Penger~rbangntr Eko-parilvisatn (Z(iern11 Pesisir pado Ekosistet~r Mangro17e Muarn Atrgke,Teluk Jnknrta,Ztzdonesia. Dengar1 bimbingan Dr. Ir. Dietriech G. Bengen, DEA., Prof. Dr. Ir. Daniel R. Monintja.

Mangrove ekosistem rnerupakaii salali satu ekosistem penting di daerah tri\cpika dan memiliki potensi ekonomi dan eko-pariwisate yang luar biasz. Aneka ragam peianana ekosistem mangrove pada eko-pariwisata daerah pesisir di Indonesiz pada saat ini diak.ui seca1.a iuas. Zko-pasiwisata adalah kegiatal? pariwisata yang seczra iingkutljgn (ekologis) bericesinambungan, yang bersangicuran dengan pemahaman; penghargaan dail pelestarian lir~gkungan dan budaya.

lnformasi rnengenai ekosistem n:angTove di Teluk Jakerta sebzgian besai berkaitali dengan aspek floia dan fauna. Ekosistem mangrove di daerah. ini mempunyai keiagarcan yang sangat terbatzs. Pentingilya produktivitas ekosistem mangrove da'lqi fui~gsi-fungsi ekosistem pesisir di Teluk Jakarta tidak dapat diabaikan begitu saja. Banyak kegiatan penlbang~nan yanz berdampak negatif pada wilzyah tersebut. Suatu kesetimbangan antara keuniungan ekonoiris dan kerugian-kerugian sosial dan 1ingk:cngan baruslah diberi bobot yang patut demi tujuari-tujuan jangka pai~jang

sehingga terbentuknya pemanfaatadpengembangan suinberdaya yang

bcrkesi!1ambunga1 tidaklah disia-sial:an. Perhatian hendakGya diberikan terhadap dampak pengembangan eko-pariwisata pesisir terhadap kelestarian ekosistem mangrove. Penelitian ini dilaksan&an dari bulan September sampai dengan November 2001 di daerah Muara Angke Jakarta Utara di Teluk Jakarta. Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk:

(1). Mengkaji kesesuaian linglmngan ekosistem mangrove dan wilayah pesisir

guna pengembangan eko-pariwisata,

(2). Memperoleh perencanaan optimal guna usulan-usulan yang berkaitan

dengan eko-pariwisata, yang berhubungan dengan variabcl (peuhah) dan parameter yang berhubungan dengan penggunaanpotensi dari kendals fisik, ekonomi dan kelembagaan dengan memperhatikan pertimbangan- pertirnbangan sasaran yang ingin diraih oleh pengusaha dan perencana kebijakan,

(3). Merekomendasikan daerah-daerah mangrove yang sesuai untuk eko- pariwisata yang akan memiiiki/mendapat dampak terkeeil terhadap lingkungan pesisir dan kegiatan-kegiatan sosial dari penduduk setempat. Sistem Informasi Geografis (SIG) dalan evaluasi kesesuaiari ekosistem

mangrove sedangksn Proses Analisis Hirarki

(AH?)

diterapkan dalam rnencari

penyelesaian kolfflik-konflik penggunaan ruangAahan. Piranti lunak Expert Choice versi

3.1 digunakan dalam penge jaan AHP (Proses Analisa Hirarki) dan memungkinkan

penganalisa dalam strukturisasi hirarki dan memecahkan masalah dengan memakai penilaian absolute bilaman diperlukan.

Sepanjang pantai utara DKI Jakarta pada mulanya mer~pakan ekosistem hutan

mangrove dengan kekayaan keanekaragaman hayati yang terdapat didalarnnya. Hasil akhir menunjukkan bahwa Indonesia sebaiknya memanfaatkan fasilitas kelenlbagaan yang tersedia sekarang dengan secepat-cepatnya, misalnya pihak kehutanan, agen-agen pariwisata dan lembaga terkait l a i ~ y a , yang dapat bertindak secara profesional dan bertanggung jawab dalam upaya membangun eko-wisata pesisir yang lebih baik, khususnya dalam ha1 ekosistem mangrove, sehingga proyek ekowisata pesisir tersebut dapat berkesinarnbungan.

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liesearcl~ Title : Policy Analysis of Coastal Ecotourisln Developlnent on Muara

Angke Mangrove Ecosysten~

,

Jakarta Bay, Indonesia

Student Name : Myint Thu Zar

Stndent ID : SPL 99803

Study Program : Master of Science in Coastal and Marine Resource

Managenlent

The Advisory Committee approves this thesis

4 Dr. Ir. Dietriech G. Bengen, DEA.

Chairman

Prof. Dr. Ir. Daniel R. Monintia

Rle~nber

1-lead of Stutly Program Director of Graduate Program

Dr. Ir. R o k l ~ ~ n i n Dahuri, MS

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STATEMENT ON THESIS AND SOURCE O F INFORMATION

I here with declare that this thesis "Policy Analysis of Coastal Ecotourism Development on Muara Angke Mangrove Ecosysteni, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia" is my own work and has not been submitted in any form for another degree or diploma programme (course) to any University or other institution of tertiary eclucation. Source

of information derived or quoted from the published or unpublished work of others has acknowledged in the text and a list of references made at the end of thesis.

Bogor, January 2002

Myint Thu Zar (SPL.99803)

STATEMENT ON ACCESS TO THIS THESIS

I, the undersigned, the author of this thesis, understand that Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia will make it available for use within the University library and, by microfilm or other photographic means, allow access to users in other approved libraries. All users consulting this thesis will have to sign the following statement:

"In consulting this thesis, I agree not to copy or to closely paraphrase it in whole or in part without the written consent of the author; and to make proper written acknowledgelnent for any assistance which I have obtained from it."

Beyond this, I do not wish to place any restriction on access to this thesis,

Bogor, January 2002

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BIOGRAPHY OF AUTHOR

The author was born in Mawlamyine, The Union of Myanmar on the date of 5" October 1969. She is a daughter of Mr. (U) Myint Thein (Head Master) and Mrs. (Daw) Aye Yi (Teacher). She has three brothers and one sister.

She finished her Elementary, Junior, and High school in No.6 Basic Education High School, Mawlamyine, The Union of Myanmar. During her schooldays in State High School she got outstanding prizes for school subjects from Kindergarten to Metric class.

M e r her Matriculation, she joined the Yezin Agricultural University, The Union of Myanmar and obtained the Degree (B.Agr. Sc.) Bachelor of Agricultural Science with Credit in the year 1993. When She was in University, She participated in Flowers Association and Mon Literature and Culture sub- committee as an executive member. Moreover she was a Secretary of Na Win Hall (Girls Dormitory).

Since March 1994 after graduation from the University, Minister for Ministry of Agriculture and Inigation has appointed her, to work in the Myanma Agriculture Service, State Manager Office, Mon State that was under the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, The Union of Myanmar as a Supervisor until the end of May 1996.

Her interest is Agricultural Research works and teaching the students to share her knowledge for this reason. She tried to apply for the University teacher at the Yezin Agricultural University, The Union of Myanmar in June 1996. Then she became a teacher in the Department of Agricultural Botany at Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar. While working there, She studied M.Sc. course works for Plant Breeding till the end of 1999 at the Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar.

In December 1999, she passed the exam for SEARCA' s scholarship to pursue her study for Master Degree Program in the Coastal and Marine Resource Management Study Program at Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia. She started her Master Degree Program in the second Month of year 2000 through a scholarship of South- East Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO), Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), SEAMEO SEARCA. She was no adequate background for that subject but she had tried her best.

During her study in Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia, she got the opportunity to participate in the JSPS International Symposium on Fisheries Science in Tropical Area, Sustainable Fisheries in Asia in the New Millennium sponsored by Japan

on August 21"-25", 2000, International Workshop COASTMAN- International

Network for Training in Integrated Coastal Zone Management sponsored by Germany in 17"-21* September, 2001 and International Training Course on Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System for Coastal Applications sponsored by UNESCO and

SEAMEO BIOTROP on the dated of 23'"ctober to 1" November,2001.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the narne of God, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. Glory is to you;

we have no knowledge except what you have taught us. Verify it is you, the All- knower, the MI- Wise. First, I would !ike to express my deepest gratitude to Gcd the Al Mighty for 14s Mercy, Favor, Blazing me to cany out this task with sound health

and mind.

I wish to express my Earnest thanks and Sincere appreciation to the

Government of the Union of Mjjanmar, Mil~ister for Ministry of Agriculture and

Irrigation, Minister for Ministry of Higher Education of Myanmar, my special Kind

and Respected Dr. Kyaw Than, tne Rector of Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar

for their official endorsemen:, kindly permission, allowed me to attend the Master

Course on Coastal and Marine Resource Management Study Program in Bogor

Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia.

My especially heartiest gratitude and heartfelt appreciation due to Dr. Ir.

Dietriech G. Bengen, DEA and Professor Dr. Ir.Danie1 R. Monintja, who acted

Respectively as my respected Chairman and Member of Advisory committee and who

introduce me to the topic "Policy Analysis of coastal ecotourism development on

Muara Angke Mangrove Ecosystem, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia", I am deeply

appreciate and respected them for their constant guidance, continuous encouragement,

valuable suggestion, good advice, constructive criticism, technical comments in

Preparation the Manuscript, kindly providing over all supervision during my study in

Indonesia. I really wish there were some way of showing my gratitude for all they hhsve

done for me.

I am very gratehl thanks to the Goverrlment of Germany, which is

administered by the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization

(SEAMEO), Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture

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during of my two years Master Degree study which without this support, this Degree

would not be possible. I am deeply appreciated.

~Zly Thanks are also due to Dr. Ruben L. Villareal the SEARCA Director, Dr.

Soekartalvi Deputy Director of SEhP,C& and Dr. Edith Cedicol GEID oficer of

SEARCA as well as other SEARCA Officers.

Thazks zre extenced to the kcad of the study prcjgian, Dr. I;.. Rolthnlin Dahuri

MS

(Presently Minister for Ministry of Marine AfFairs and Fishery), Professor Dr. Ir.

Jacub Rais, Dr. Ir. Tridoyo Kusurnastanto and ail of my Lecturers in Bogor

Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia, who shared me precious knowledge for my

future. 1 am the highest thanks to them for their deep understanding about my Language

(Bahasa Indonesia) problem during my course works study in the regular ciass. Thank

you very much for all of their Kindness and help.

I would like to express my most grateful thanks to Rector Prof. Dr. Ir. K. M.

Aman Wiranatakusumah, M.Sc. and Professor Dr. Syafrida Manuwoto, M.Sc.

Director of Graduate Program, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia, who

always provided kind attention and forced me to do the best for their support

adnlinistration.

My sincere gratitude and appreciation went to Professor

U

Han Nyunt and,

Teachers from the Department of Agricultural Botany, Yezin Agriculturai

University (YAU), Myanmar, for each of them shared and conducted my regular duty

during my study in Indonesia. Thank you very much for their kind assistance.

I would also like to extend my thanks to staff of Graduste Program IPB, who

kindly helped me in the process of my academic regulation as we!l as to the Coastal

and Marine Resource Management Study Program Staffs for all the best support,

providing facilities, services and kindly friendship.

I

am very gratefully acknowledges to our Ambassador, Staffs and their family

from the Embassy of the Union of Myanmar at Jakarta- Indonesia and my sincerely

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I am always remembering for the all happy times we had together in Indonesia, how's

wonderful life we had It will always be on my mind

My thanks are due to Drs. Soebagio, M M (Walikota of North Jakarta), Ir.

Darjamuni M.Si (Head of Fishery Department), Drs. A.Z. Harahap, M M (I-Iead of

Tourism Office), Er. Nyolo Santoso, M.Si (Head of Muara Angke Natural Sanchrary

and his wife Drh. Ria Furyacti Yahya

,

M.Si (Admicistrative staff of SPL study

program), Mr. Ir. R J. Moermanto, MS for their willingness to contribute the necessary data and information to illy research. I am really greatly appreciated.

I especially grateful to appreciate the advice and assistance of my friends afid

my Colleagues, Yopi, Iclia, Erick, Arifin, Noni, Ocha, Erin, Fis and ail of my

classmates in SPL Study Prosram (3" batch, 4'' batch, 5"' batch), especially Deky,

Johana, Parman, Yuanike, Dian, . b a n , Agus, Pri, Lilik, Ebest, Sri, Milka, for our

deeply friendship, helphl advice and willingly gave helping hands, to my friend in the

"same Boat", I really appreciate our togetherness, our 24-I-Iours-a-Day Works, and how

we support each othei to finish our study right on time.

I am deeply Indebted to nly lovely Aunt for her full supporting, sacrifice, good advice, kindly patient me with her love, which made this study possible and led to a

successfUl completion. 1 am very appreciated.

Last but not least, the most profoundly and deeply appreciation must go to my

beloved Mom, my three Brothers, and one Sister for their permission, their love, their

motivation and their prayers. I am really most grateful to them.

There is marly people left that I should thank for this task that is not mentioned

individually. I wislt to show my appreciation for what they have done.

. .. . .

I dedicated this Thesis to Our Golden Land Union of Myanmar, my Mother

University Yezin Agricultural University (YAU), my Beloved Mom and my Lovely

Aunt, to whom this piece of rny task as an expression of my respect and admiration.

The Author

Myint Thtr Zar

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PREFACE

All praise is unto to Thee, Lord the Almighty, whose Grace and Guidance made

it possible for me to finish and submit this Thesis, which is Partial fu!filln~ent of the

requirements for the degree of Master of Science In Coastal and Marine Resources

Management Study Program, Bogor Agricultural University OPE), Indonesia.

The title of the Thesis is "Policy Analysis of Coastal Ecotourism

Development on Muara Angke Mangrove Ecosystem, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia." In

short, the research would be focused to study the possibility of mangrove forest zones

for coastai ecotourism development purposes and assessing policy related to that.

Allow me to express my gratitude to Dr.

Ir.

Dietriech G. Bengen, DEA., as the

Chairman of Advisory committee and. Professor. Dr. Ir. Daniel Monintja as the

member of Advisory committee, who had put great effort in directing and providing

precious suggestion and input to me, in preparing this Thesis.

I would also like to express very grateful thanks to my Sponsor, Southeast

Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO), Regional Center for

Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), SEAMEO SEARCA for

their financial support by awarding me the Scholarship during two years of my Master

Degree study progamme.

I felt sure that this Research was far from perfect. Therefore, I kindly asked

further direction, suggestion, input and criticism to make it better. Finally, I hoped that

this research result and the subsequent research work would benefit the reader and other

students.

Bogor, January 2002 The Author

Myint Thu Zar

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DKI Jakarta ... Figure 12. The root, leaves, flower and fruit of Rhyzophora sp. ... Figure 13. The root, leaves, flower and fruit of Sonneratia spp. ... Figure 14. The rooting, tree and fruit of Avicennia spp ... Figure 15. The form of root, leaves and fruit of Heritiera spp. ... Figure 16. The form of root (knee root), trunk. Leaf and fruit of Tancang

(Bruguiera gymnothyza).

...

.

...

... .

....

... ... ... .

Figure 17. The form of leave fronds .and stems of Nipah,

...

.... .... .

...

Figure 18. The Potency of Mangrove Forest in Muara Angke at Jakarta

bay . . .

..

. .. . .

.

. . .

.

. . .

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. . .

.

. . .

. .

.

. . .

.

. . .

Figure 19. Characteristics of mangrove forest on the Landsat ETM 7

Image

. . .. . .

.

. . .

.

. .

.... . .

, ,

. . .

. .

.

. . .

.

. . .

.

Figure 20. Broad walk constructed in mangrove forest protected at Muara

Angke

. . .

. .

. . .

.

. .

.

. .

. . .

..

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,

.

,

. .

..

. .

.

... . .

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..

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.

. .

. . .

.

..

. . .

. . . . , . . . . , . . . .

.

. . .

.

Figure 21. Physical Development at Intensive Utilization Zone of

. .

Ecotourism Actlvlty

... ..., ,...

...

Figure 22. The Final Result of Analytical Hierarchy Process for Coastal

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LIST OF APPENDM

Page Appendix 1. List of Questionnaires: Questionnaires for Policy Analysis

of Coastal Ecotourism Development on Muara Angke Mangrove Ecosystem, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia

...

123

~ p p e n d i x 2. Example of Al~zlysis Individual Data By Using Expert

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I. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Mangrove is a kind of vegetation including trees, bushes, flowers, and nypa.

This veget~tion can be found in tropical and subtropical region, estuaries, arid along the

shoreliae, which adapted t~ anserobic condition either in fresh :vater and s f t y water

environment. This vegetation has capability to adapt with mud and salt. It has hanging

roots, vihich above the water or mud used for absorbing oxygen. Mangrove forest is the

tropical coast vegetation community dominated by several species of mangrove tree:.

They grow and develop on tidal nlu6 area (Bengen, 2001).

Mangrove forests are one of the most productive ~ n d biodiversity wetlands on

ea-th. Yet, these unique coastal tropical forests are among the most threatened habitats

in the world. They may be disappearing more quickly than inland tropical rainforests,

and so far, with little public notice. Growing in the inter-tidal areas and estuary mouths

between land and sea, mangroves provide critical habitat for a diverse marine and

terrestrial flora and fauna. Healthy mangrove forests are key to a healthy marine

ecology.

However, in many areas of the world, mangrove deforestation is contributing to

fisheries declines, degradation of clean water supplies, and salinization of coastal soils,

erosion, and land subsidence, as well as the release of carbon dioxide into the

atmosphere. In fact, mangrove forests fix more carbon dioxide per unit area than

phytoplankton in tropical oceans. Mangrove forests once covered 314 of the coastlines

of tropical and sub-tropical countries. Today, less than 50% remain, and of this

remaining forest, over 50% is degraded and not in good form. There needs be greater protection on primary or high quality mangrove sites knowing that the total remaining

area will continue to decrease (A!fredo Quarto, 2001)

Mangroves live in community and roles in maintaining estuaries and shoreline

and also become as habitat for various kind of animals. The tropical Mangrove

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(Spalding, et al, 1997). Mangrove is existing around mouth of the great rivers and bay

area and found in tropical countries which have high annual rainfall. Mangrove forest

is

primary component of coastal ecosystem in tropical and subtropical in the world.

Mangrove described as wood sources in coastal area (Coastal Woodland).

In mangiave communities, there is quite number of associated species, both

plants avd animals. These ~rganisms may live in the mzngrc.ires for the v.rh=l:, or on!y

part ~f their life cycle. However, this associated biota is c.onsidered to be the impnrtallt

resources of the mangrove ecosystem. The important associated species are bacteria,

fungi, algae, bryophytes/fems lichens, mon~cotyledons, dicotyledons, spongeslbryozoa,

coelenterata/ctenophora, nonpolychaete worms, polychaetes, crusiaceans, insects,

molluscs, echinodernls, ascidians, fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals.

Ecologicaliy mangroves are important in maintaining and building the soil, as a

reservoir in the tertiary assimilation of waste, and in the global cycle of carbon dioxide,

nitrogen, a d sulphur. The protection against: cyclones are a "free" benefit, yet hidden

benefits from mangroves, especially in marginal areas, may even be more important

than the obvious ones. They play a significant role in coastal stabilisation and

promoting land accretion, fixation of mud banks, dissipation of wicds, tidal and wave

ener,~.

Transplanting salt-marsh vegetation is an alternative erosion control method,

which is relatively inexpensive, and proven to be effective on some shorelines. The

aerial plant parts dissipate waves, act as a living groyne by accumulating sediment and

the tough mat of roots and rhizomes stabilises the substrate. They trap sediments and

thus contribute to land building and prevent excessive shifting of coastline sand. a

relatively recent commercial use of recreation and ecotourism.

Tourism that consists in traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontanlinated

natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery

and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both

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that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conversation

(Ecotourism Association brochure, 1992).

Indonesia's mangrove forests are supposed to be the world's largest, hut

environmentalists here say their area has been cut in half by decades of export-oriented

aquaculture. This kind of development has been encouraged by international financial

institutions. The World Earlk anrl cxthsr intern~ti~nal donors, acccrding tc stvdies being

undertaker. by environmcntai groups here,

for

example, have often ficanced shrimp

cultivation.

To keep the country competitive in this profitable industry, the Indonesian

government has allocated up to one million hectares of land, mostly in mangrove

forests, for the shrimp and l~atchery industry. Not ali mangrove areas can be converted

into shrimp fanns, but activists say many businessmen often go ahead and clear the

forests anyway out of sheer ignorance. Apart from the export potential that drives

shrimp farming, mangroves are threatened by other factors such as exploitation by local

communities out of poverty, lack of knowledge, or in their search for income.

The uses of mangroves are many and varied. A fundamental function of all

forests has been to supply timber for cooking, heating and constructing dwellings, and

mangrove forests are no exception (FAO, 1982). Traditionalljr, people have used

mangroves for the benefit of the local community, but increasing populations have led

to an increasing non-sustainable abuse of the resources.

Some local residents chop down the trees for firewood and contractors look for

material to use in tourism projects, or clear the area completely for housing. In the

province of Acch in North Sumatra, Northwest of Jakarta, local people have been

slashing down mangrove trees to export the wood to Malaysia and Singapore. Here in

Jakarta, the remaining mangroves in htuara Angke are under serious threat as domestic

and industrial waste discharged into the capital's rivers finds its way to these forests.

The destruction of mangrove forests partly means that vast areas are losing

a

natural

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damaged mangroves. Says the forestry ministry's Sudarsono: "We can't replace

mangroves with other trees because it is the only plant suitable for the coastal area."

The policy is fundamental requirement for the development and use of

mangrove'ecosystem marine resources and for special management of enclosed, such a

policy establishes goals, objectives arid priorities and lays down basic principles and

criteria v~hich prc-vide sidance for the formulation of plans and programmes and a

coastal ecotourism development strategy. The policy should outline a framework that

identifies the financial, human, technical and institutional resources needed. The

government has already enacted Environment La-AI No. 2311997 to protect the mangrove

ecosystem.

Indonesia as the archipelagic country with very long coastlines, has the iargest

mangrove forest in the world, which is aboitt 3,530,000 hectares. Mangrove forests can

prevent erosion, protect the land from strong winds and waves and obtain the business

opportunities from the mangrove products to the people. Due to the decrease of

mangrove areas caused by coastal development activities, the government of Indonesia

promotes to manage the mangrove forest areas, which can accommodate the

conservation issues and the social-economic promotion of mangrove to the people's

environment.

As

mentioned above, the mangrove natural resources ayd environnent are being

deteriorated in the Jakarta area. A lot of development activities have negatively affected

this area. If the situation continues, the environmental problems in Jakarta will become

more severe. Such h a d l activities require the sufficient planning and management to

avoid conflicts and maintain the environmental quality, scenery and scientific value.

However, this is not possible without ecological knowledge and adequate techniques

that are available for mangrove management. Therefore, using Geographic Information

System (GIS) techniques are usefbl tools to support a multi-sector resource planning

and sustainable management for the Jakarta Bay.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

The main problem for mangrove forests in Indonesia is their degradation by

conversion to fish or shrimp farms, known locally as tambak. Mangrove forests are also

over-exploited for firewood, house construction, and making fishery tocls. As we al!

know, the mangrove forest is a unique ecosystem that is very sensitive to disturbance;

yet it is 2lso is a potential natural resource.

The government of Indonesia, through regio~al forestzy officials, has zttempted

some conservation and rehabilitation efforts, but with success as low as 15 to 40%. The

reasons for such low success rates include slrch factors as:

( I ) inadequate control atter replanting,

(2) poor qualitjy of seed,

(3) site unsuitable for species planted,

(4) lack of community involvement.

The first three factors are not very serious; technical problems can be easily

solved. However, the last factor is outside the control of the rehabilitation program

implernenters.

Some studies have shown that a local community role is essential in mangrove

forest management. The local community is in a very stratcgic position to co-ordinate

and guard implementation. Community development is oriented to real locai needs.

Mangrove considered as primary resources where huge communities depend on

mangrove forest. In Indonesia threatening factors which influenced the mangrove are

urban development, mangrove conversion, oirerexploitation, and oil spil. Combination

between the ecology protection and economically protection are the most importent

factor for these resources management. Highly damaged mangrove ecosystems need

accurate control. An inventory for the resources accurately is much needed for more

intensive management. Participation from local community to management and

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1.3 Objective of the Study

The research aimed is as follow:

(1). To examine the environmental suitability of mangrove ecosystem and coastal area

for ecotourism development,

(2). To obtain the optimum plans for the associated exterterprise in relation to variables

and parameters which reiate the potential use of physical, economic and

institutional restraints while considering the objectives of entrepreneur and policy

planners,

(3). To recommend the appropriate mangrove areas for ecotot~rism that would have the

(184)

IT.

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.11 The Role of Mangrove Ecosystem

The uses of mangrove products are many and important. The importance of the

resource stems from the many products taken directly from the mangroves, including

wood and non-wood products, as well as products and amenities provided from within

and bsyond its bol~ndaries, such as coastal fish resources. Wood products range from

timber, poles and posts for iirewood, charcoal and tannin. Non-wood products include

thztch, honey, wildlife, fish, crustaceans, fodder anc! medicinal plants. Among the

"intangible" benefits of mangroves, oftea taken for granted, are:

(1) Coastal protection against wave and wind erosion; (2) Moderating the effects of coastal stornls and cyclones;

(3) shelter and habitat for diverse wildlife, particularly avifauna;

(4) nutrient sink-effect and reduction in large amounts of pollutants coming either from

the sea or from rivers passing through mangroves;

(5) Entrapment of upland run-off sediments thus protecting near-shore reefs and

reducing seawater turbidity; opportunities foi recreation and ecotourism.

In addition, mangrove forests provide land for conversion to salt ponds, shrimp

farms or for agriculture or aquacdlture. (Anonym, 1997)

2.1.1 Mangrove Forest Condition

Area and Distribution of Mangroves

Mangrove trees and shrubs form conspicuous wetland ecosystems fringing

extensive areas of coastline in tropical and subtropical latitudes. In addition to the

mangrove forest itself, waterways (estuaries, creeks, canals, lagoons and backwaters),

nludflats, saltpans and islands contribute to the physical dimension of these ecosystems,

as described by Kjerfve (1990). True mangroves are mainly restricted to intertidal areas

between the high water levels of neap and spring tides. Under optimal conditions,

(185)

reach a height of up to 45 m to create a valuable timber resource (Tomlinson, 1986;

UNEP, 1994).

2.1.2 Mangrove Ecosystem

Basic char~cteristics of mangrove forest ecosystems

I\/iar.groves are thz characteristic 1i:toral plant formations of tropical and

subtropical sheltered coastlines and are at the interfzce between the land and the sea.

The importance of mangroves stems from their pivotal role in both terrestrial and

aquatic production, and by the many amenities provided within and bsyond its

boundaries. (Anonym, 1997)

Mangrove forests are the characteris:ic littoral plant formations of tropical and

subtropical sheltered coastlines. Generally, nizngroves are trees and bushes growing

below the high- water level of spring tides. Their root system is regularly inundated

with saline water, even though it may be diluted due to freshwater surface run-offs and

only flooded once or twice a year.

The mangrove forests are evergreen. The paucity of tree species occurring in

them is due to the peculiar conditions of their existence, few plants being able to tolerate

and flourish in saline mud and to withstand frequent inundation by seawater. Th5y also

differ from inland forests in that certain tree species are practically gregarious over

extensive areas.

Abiotic and biotic components

As mention in Anonym (1997), that the following abiotic and biotic components are:

Abiotic Comoonents

Soil

Mangrove soils in Indonesia are of recent marine alluvium, transported as

sediment and deposited by rivers and the sea, which have been classified by

(186)

combinations, and 'mud' actually refers to a mixture of silt and clay, both of which are

rich in organic matter (detritus).

Soil condition is one of the contributing factors of zonation among animals and

plants, e.g. different species of fiddler crabs thrive in different soil conditions, and while

plants like Avicennia and So?vreralia do well in sandy areas, Rhizcphora copes better

with soft horns-rich mud while Rruguiera favours stiff clay contaicing iittle organic

matter.

PE

Dissolved calcium of shells and offshore coral make brackish waters alkaline.

Mangrove soils, however, are neutral to:, slightly acidic due to the sulphur-reducing

bacteria, and the presence of acidic clcys.

Oxygen

The amount of dissolved oxygen in mangrove waters is generally lower than that

of the open sea. This low content may be depressed further in areas of organic pollution,

to the point of creating an anoxic zone in the water column! The decay and respiration

of bacteria use up oxygen in the soil between sediment particles (interstitial oxygen).

The circulation of tidal water and exchange with the atmosphere replenishes the

oxygen content of only the first few millimeters of soil. Below that, the organic content

and fine particle size of mud result in anoxic conditions tolerated only by anaerobic

bacteria that breaks down organic material without oxygen. This produces the toxic (to

us at least!) hydrogen sulphide gas which turns things black and smelis of rotten eggs.

Nutrients

Nutrients produced by primary producers are passed on to the community and

eventually to the detrital pool via the breakdown of leaf litter and timber. Often this is

accomplished by the action of grazing herbivores, which accelerates the transfer of

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However, nutrients are not solely produced internally from within the ecosystem

(autochthonous) but are also derived externally (allochthonous), with imports from

rivers and the sea. Rain regularly flushes out detritus from rivers to the mangrove, and

the sea brings in dissolved and suspended organic matter as well as microscopic

organisms, which are consumed by filter feeders during high tide. The receding seE

drains through soii, which acts as a sieve, lea.ving a lriyer of microscopic organisms

deposited on the surface. The emerging terrestrial fauna during the iow tide grazes

these. This is a two vray process, with nutrients also exposed to the sea with the

receding tide.

W i n d s and currents

Java climate can be divided into four 'seasons' by the monsoons. Strong winds . . ~~

and heavy rainfall characterize the Northeast monsoon (Dec-Mar) particularly during

the first two months. The first intermoonson period (Apr) has little wind.

The Southwest monsoon (May-Sep) has two origins, and heavy rainfall

coincides with the convergence zone, but rarely over Indonesia, making this usually the

driest period of the year. The second intermonsoon (Oct-Nov) is inuch like the first, but

some late 'Sumatra's' (from the Southwest monsoon) may bring heavy rain. Sea currents

are generated mainly by the monsoon winds, and follow their lead.

Light, temperature and humidity

The conditions within the forest and on the mudflat are very different. Mudflats

are exposed to sunlight during diurnal low tides and become very hot and highly

reflective, whereas the forest canopy shades the mangrove floor, keeping it cool.

The relative humidity, however, does not approach that of an inland forest like

Bukit Timah. St is not as dense and being more permeable to wind, it is thus drier. In

1997, the haze over Singapore caused by forest fires in Indonesia reduced light intensity

(188)

Tides

In Indonesia, high waters (HW; high, rising or flood tides) alternate twice a day with low waters (LW; low, receding or ebb tides). Caused by the gravitational pull and centrihgal forces of the rotation of the earth, moon and sun, tides are also modified by the local geography.

Indonesia experiences predoininantiy [nixed semi-diurnal tides, i.e. the two high tides (and low tides) of a day are not of equal height. Tide times shift by an additicnal 50 minutes a day since they are based on a lunar day, which is 24 hours 50 minutes long.

When the moon and sun align during a full or new moon every two weeks, the resultant spring tides (usually experienced two days later) are a high water spring tide (HWST) ~ n d a low wzter spring tide (LWST). The average between the two may be considered the tidal range, and in Singapore reaches a maximal of about 3.5-m. there are beaches in other countries with a tidal range of 10 m!

The area on seashore lying between the highest high water spring tide (HHWST) and the lowest low water spring tide (LLWST) is the inertial zone. The level exactly in between the two extreme tides can be taken to be the mid- tide level (MTL), and mangrove forests grow between MTL and HHWST.

Spring tides occur every two weeks, and between that period, the sun and moon approach at right angles to each other. Their gravitational effects are partially cancelled out and produce alternating neap tides, resulting in high water neap :ides (HWNT) and low water neap tides (LWNT). When the moon is in its first and third quarter, the lowest tidal range is reached, and may shrink to as little as 0.6 m. Tidal behavior varies with location and time, so consult a tide-table or the newspaper before you visit a mangrove anywhere.

Salinity

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may be categorized into oligohaline waters of low salinity (0.5-5 ppt), mesohaline

waters of intermediate salinity (5-18 ppt) and polyhaline waters of high salinity (18-30

ppt). The term brackish water actually refers to oligohaline to weakly mesohaline

waters. Specific readings of salinity withir, a mangrove may range from 0.5-35 ppt! One

of the reascns for this variation is the tide-when the sea floods the mangrove, the

salinity is that of polyhaline seaweter.

Sa!inity also varies with estuarine depth, for salty seawater tends to sink, being

heavier. When the sea recedes, tide pools can become hypersaline (>30 ppt) especiaily

during the long exposure during lower low water springs. Inside the mangroves,

however, the influence of freshwater runoff from the land becomes significant,

particularly during monsoons. Small streams in the mangrove are oligohaline and

hrther inland, some are even freshwater! In our narrow mangroves, the effeGt of

&eshwater inflow is considerable.

Biotic comvonents

Vegetation and Zonatiori

It is not easy to define mangroves using objective criteria despite numerous

attempts. Classification of vegetation, untortunately, is subjective. The somewhat

arbitrary classification of Todinson (1986) has been adopted with species categorized

as major and minor elements of the mangrove community or as associates.

Characteristics of mangrove forest in the field are (Soerianegara and Indrawan,

1984):

(i) Uninfluenced by climate factor

(2) Influe~ced by tidal

(3) The soil flooded by sea water, mud or sand, mainly clay soil (4) In the low coast area

(5) Unstructured layerlstratification of the forest stand ( 6 ) The trees could reach up to 30 meters high

(190)

( 8 ) Ground cover: Acrostichum aureum, Acanthzrs ilicifolius, A. ebracteatus

Mangrove forest vegetation has high diversity in ~ndonesia'(~able 1). It has 202

species, consist of 8 9 trees, 5 species of palm, and 19 species of lima, 44 species of epiphyte and 1 species of Sicas. However, it is only about 47 specific plant species of the mangrove forest. PLt least there is one doini~lsnt tree species in the mangrave forest frorn the family of Xhizophoraceae (Rhizophora, Bruguiera and Ceriops,

Sonneratiaceae (Sonneratia), Avicenniaceae (Al~icenrzia) and MeIiaceae (Xylocarpris) (Bengen, 2001)

Table 1. Environmental Factor that Affect the Zoning of Mangrove Vegetation Growth

and wind

Legend:

ST : Suitable SV : Less suitable

MD : Moderate VS : Un suitable

Following Tomlinson, the major mangrove species possess the following attributes:

( 1 ) They are obligate inhabitants of the mangrove ecosystem and cannot be found

elsewhere; 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Source: Lecture material on ecosystem and coastai resources, Bengen (1998). Rhizophora Apiculata

Bruguiiera gyn~norrhiza Lun~nitzera lithoralis Bruguiieraparvijlora Rhizophora Sty/osa Sonr~eratia alba Sonneratia caseolaris Avicenrtia spp Xylocarpus granatuni Hernlcra Iitharalis Certera ntanghas Hibiscus sp. Cerlera nianghas