A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PREFIXES BETWEEN ENGLISH AND GAYONESE
A THESIS
BY:
DEDI KURNIAWAN YUNUS
Reg.No.050705029
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LETTERS
UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA
MEDAN
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, honor and praise would be dedicated to God, Allah SWT and
Muhammad saw for giving me love, bless, and guidance through life and
especially during the preparation and process of finishing this thesis.
In completion of this thesis, it is realized that this thesis will not come into
existence without so many helps, encouragement, criticism, advices, guidance and
also prays from some persons around me.
Therefore, appreciation and gratitude would be delivered to the Dean of
Faculty of Letters, Dr. Drs. H. Syahron Lubis, M.A., the Head of English
Department Dra. Swesana Mardia Lubis, M. Hum., and the Secretary Rahmatsyah
Rangkuti, M.A., phD for help and suggestions related to the improvements of the
proposal and other administrative supports.
Gratefulness is dedicated to my Supervisor, Dra Hj. Masdiana Lubis, M.
Hum and also to my Co-supervisor, Dra. Persadanta Karo, M. Hum for their
generous helps and supports especially in correcting this thesis as well as any
suggestions and advices. Gratitude is also expressed to all of my lecturers in
English Department who taught much and contributed their knowledge during the
academic years.
Deep appreciation and tender love would be represented to my beloved
Mom, Yusminar who has sacrificed everything for my study until I can finish my
thesis. Thank you so much for giving me spiritual supports and always pray the
And the last but not least, special thanks for my big family (IMSI) where I
met so many fun friends : Kiki, Fifi Boesya, Ai,Ratih, Lili, Yuyu, etc, also
studenys of batch ’06 etc, thank you for all of your love and support. I’m so
thankful to have you.
Finally, it is realized that this thesis is still far from being perfect.
Therefore, any constructive criticisms and advices are highly appreciated. This
thesis is hoped will be useful for those who are interested in academic works.
Medan, December 2010
The writer,
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………. i
ABSTRACT………... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS……….. iv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION………. 1
1.1Background of the Analysis………...1
1.2 Problems of Analysis………... 3
1.3 Objectives of Analysis………... 3
1.4 Scope of Analysis……….. 4
1.5 Significances of Analysis……….. 4
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES………… 5
2.1 Theoretical Framework………. 5
2.1.1 Morphology……… 5
2.1.2Morphemes………. 6
2.1.3 Words……… 7
2.2 An Account on Morphological Process……… 8
2.3 A Brief Discussion of Contrastive Analysis………. 13
CHAPTER III RESEARCH OF METHOD………... 18
3.1 Research Design……….…….. 18
3.2 Data and Data Source……….. 18
3.3 Data Collecting Method……….. 19
3.4 Data Analysis Method……… .19
CHAPTER IV THE ANALYSIS OF PREFIXES IN ENGLISH AND GAYONESS………. 21
4.1 English……….. 21
4.1.1 Form……….. 21
4.1.2 Distribution……….24
4.1.3 Function ……… 32
4.1.4 Meaning………. 42
4.2 Gayonese………43
4.2.1 Form……….. 43
4.2.2 Distribution………... 58
4.2.3 Function ……….66
4.2.4 Meaning………... 70
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS……… 86
4.1 Conclusion……… 86
4.2 Suggestions………87
ABSTRAK
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Analysis
Human is the most perfect creature than others which God has created.
Human has brain which can be used to create the visible and invisible things. One
of the creations of human being is language which is invisible and created from
the process of thought.
Language is an important tool of communication. As human being, it is
needed as a medium of communication to express emotions, ideas, feelings and
thoughts to other people. As a member of society or social group, language is
used to convey our needs, desires and everything what someone wants to express
the society and also indicates the existence of human beings.
There are so many kinds of languages in the world and they are created by
their own culture. Different culture has different language. Each language has also
different structures and forms. For example, in Gayoness we have “nome” and in
English we have “sleep” in the meaning of “tidur” in Bahasa Indonesia. From this
fact we can find that each language is different from another. These variations of
language appear as the impact of variety of cultures the people have. Although we
have so many languages as our medium of communication, we still can find some
similarities and differences in each of them. Therefore, in understanding language
we have to know more about Lingustics.
One of the linguistic aspect is concerned with the contrastive analysis.
menguraikan perbedaan atau persamaan aspek-aspek kebahasaan dari dua bahasa atau lebih yang dibandingkan. ( Contrastive Analysis is the process of
describing, proving and explaining the differences and similarities of language
aspects between two or more languages linguistically). In this case the use of
terms “similarity and dissimilarity” are narrow or limited because those terms
refer to the condition if all aspects that are compared are same, they can be called
“similarity’ and vise versa. So the terms “correspondence”,
partly-correspondence” and “non-partly-correspondence” will be used in analysis prosess.
According to Wardhaugh, 1977 in Kajian Morfologi, Affixes are added to
bases or to various combinations of morphemes. While based on Francis
Katamba (1993 :44) an affix is a morpheme which only occurs when attached to
some other morpheme or morphemes such as a root or stem or base. Then in
Linguistics, affixes are divided into three based on Robins (1992), they are prefix,
infix, and suffix. Katamba (1993:44) says that a prefix is an affix attached before
a root or stem or base like re-, un- and in-. Obviously, prefix is a kind of bound
morpheme. While bound morpheme according to him always occur with some
other word-building element attached to them.
In this thesis, the contrastive between Gayoness and English in terms of
prefix is chosen by the writer as the topic of analysis because it is considered that
there are still a few people who are interested in analyzing it. The writer also
interested in analysis Gayoness because it is used by the writer as the
mother-tongue and the writer found that there are some differences between English and
Gayoness. For example, the word “come” in English stands as a verb then it
Gayoness the word “dere” (pukul) which stands as verb change into noun after
being attached with prefix pe- into “pendere” (pemukul).
There are 10 prefixes in English : in-(adj), un- (adj), un-(verb), dis-(verb),
dis- (noun), dis-(adj), dis-(verb),re- (verb), ex-(noun), in- (noun) while in
Gayoness we found that there are 7 prefixes : /mu-/, /pe-/, /be-/, /ke-/, /te-/, /i-/,
and /se-/ -. So in this thesis, the writer will contrast the use of the 10 prefixes in
English to 7 prefixes in Gayoness to find out the differences between the two
languages.
1.2 Problems of Analysis
In this thesis, there are two problems as follows:
1. How are the morphological process of prefix in English and Gayonese?
2. Are there any correspondences, partly correspondences and
non-correspondences of analysis of form, distribution, function, and meaning
of prefix in both languages?
1.3 Objectives of Analysis
In the process of analysis, the writer would like to find out two objectives below:
1. To explain the morphological process of prefix in English and Gayonese.
2. To find out the correspondence, partly correspondence and
non-correspondence of analysis of form, distribution, function, and meaning of
1.4 Scope of Analysis
This thesis is focused only on contrasting of 10 prefixes in English, there are
in-(adj), un- (adj), un-(verb), dis-(verb), dis- (noun), dis-(adj), dis-(verb),re- (verb), ex-(noun), in- (noun) with 8 prefixes in Gayonese, there are /mu-/, /pe-/,
/be-/, /ke-/, /te-/, /i-/, and /se-/ which are attached to word and contrasting them
from the aspect of form, distribution, function and meaning.
1.5 Significances of Analysis
The significances which will be expected from this thesis are as follows:
1. To show the readers the morphological process of prefix in English and
Gayonese.
2. To show the readers about the contrastive prefixes in both languages.
3. It is expected to be used as the reference to the students who are studying
in Linguistics.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES
2.1 Theoretical Framework 2.1.1 Morphology
Morphology is a part of Linguistics. It is a study of words. There are
some definitions of morphology based on some experts as follows:
John Lions (1968) says :
“….morphology deals with the internal structure of
words…”
L. Bloomfield ( 1973) says:
“ By the morphology of a language we mean the
constructions in which bound forms appear among the
constituents.”
H.A. Gleason ( 1970 ) says:
“….morphology is the description of the more intimate
combinations of morphemes, roughly what are familiarly
called ‘words’….”
Charles F. Hockett ( 1958 : 177) says:
“Morphology includes the stock or segmental morpheme
and the ways in which words are built out of them”.
From the definitions above we can conclude that Morphology is a branch
Morphology, Phonology, Phonemics and Syntax are related each other.
However, based on the object of study each of them has different scope. The
object of Morphology is called Morpheme, the object of Phonology is sound, the
object of Phonemics is Phoneme, and the object of Syntax is sentence.
2.1.2 Morpheme
There are some definitions of Morpheme based on experts:
L. Bloomfield says in his book,” Linguistics form which bears no partial
phonetic – semantics resemblance to any other form is a simple form morpheme.”
Charles F. Hockett says that Morphemes are the smallest individually meaningful
elements in the utterances of a language”.
Then, Ramlan (1980:11) says,
“Morpheme adalah bentuk yang paling kecil yang tidak mempunyai bentuk lain sebagai unsurnya.” (Morpheme is the smallest element which cannot be divided into any other forms.)
So we can conclude that Morpheme is the smallest element that cannot be
divided into several elements and has a meaning. All the based form is
Morpheme. In Linguistics we can find that Morpheme is classified into two: Free
Morpheme and Bound Morpheme. Free Morpheme is a morpheme that can stand
alone (independent) without bound morpheme. For example : run, read, far, etc.
While bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone (dependent) but
have to attach to free morpheme. For example: Affixation: Prefix, Suffix, and
Infix.
In English, there are 10 prefixes : in-(adj), un- (adj), un-(verb), dis-(verb),
the word discount in English has a new meaning as “reduction in price” after
being attached together. Discount derives from the combination of prefix /dis-/
and verb /count/. While in Gayonese the are 7 prefixes : /mu-/, /pe-/, /be-/, /ke-/,
/te-/, /i-/, and /se-/. For example, the word munyara derives from the combination
of prefix /mu-/ and /sara/ which means “unite” in English and “menyatu” in
Bahasa.
2.1.3 Word
Based on the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary(1995:1374), Word is
a sound or group of sounds that expresses a meaning and forms an independent unite of a language. From the statement above, we can conclude that word is the
smallest free element or we can also say that every free element is a word. There
are some criterions that can be used to identify a word:
1. A word might consists of one free morpheme. For example : sick, sleep,
fall, etc. These are called simple words.
2. A word might consists of one free morpheme and minimum one bound
morpheme. For example: unlock, unreal, dismiss, etc. These are called
complex words.
3. A word might consists of one bound morpheme or more with one more
bound morpheme with it. From example : unbreakable, unfaithfully, etc.
These are also called complex words.
4. A word might consists of one free morpheme and one free morpheme or
one bound morpheme. For example in Bahasa we find the word:
So, we can conclude that each basic form is morpheme but not every
morpheme can be classified as word and not all morphemes can be made into
basic form.
2.2 An Account on Morphological Process
According to Nida, Morphology is the study of morphemes and their
arrangements in forming words (1967 : 1). Charles F. Hockett, (1958 :177) says, “
Morphology includes the stock or segmental morpheme and the ways in which
words are built out of them.” Katamba (1994 : 3 ) says that “morphology is study
of internal structure.”
Then, Samsuri (1975:37) states: “Suatu cara pembentukan kata-kata
dengan menghubungkan morfem yang satu dengan morfem yang lain.”( The way
of words forming by relating one morpheme to another.)
From the explanation given above, it is clear that morphology is the study
of word forming which also distinguish a word from morpheme. For example the
word /recheck/ has two morphemes : /re-/ which is bound morpheme and check
which is free morpheme. /Re-/ is dependent morpheme and can not stand alone if
it is combined with other independent morpheme. So we can conclude that
morphological process is the process of morphological which includes the
Affixation (Prefixation, Suffixation, Infixation ) Circumfixation, Modification and
Reduplication. A morphological process is a means of changing
its meaning to fit its syntactic and communicational context.
Most languages that ar
these languages also use prefixation and infixation. Very few languages use only
prefixation, and none employ only infixation or any of the other types of
morphological processes listed below. Affixation is the morphological process
whereby a
follows:
1.
Prefixation is Prefixation
attached to the front of
process is called
Example (English)
The prefix un- attaches to the front of the stem selfish to form the word
unselfish.
• /un-/ + / selfish/ → unselfish
2.
Suffixation is a Suffixation
attached to the end of
called
Example (English)
The past tense suffix -ed attaches to the end of the stem walk to form the
past tense verb walked.
3.
Infixation is a Infixation
within a
Example: Philippines (Tagalog)
The focus marker -um- is a infix which is added after the first consonant of the
root.
• bili: root ‘buy’
• bumili: word ‘bought’
Other kinds of morphological process are as follows:
1. Circumfixation
Circumfixation is a morphological process whereby an
two separate parts surrounds and attaches to a
2.
Modification is a morphological process which produces an alteration
within a Modification
Example (English)
The root man is modified when it it undergoes the pluralization that results
in the form men.
3.
Reduplication is a Reduplication
is repeated.
Example (Ilocano, Philippines)
Singular Plural
pingan 'dish' pingpingan 'dishes' talon 'field' taltalon 'fields'
In Gayonese, there are 3 kinds of morphological process: Prefixes, Infixes,
and Suffixes. Below are some examples for each of the Affixation in
No. Affixations No. Examples Meaning
1. Prefixes 1. /mu-/ /mu-/ + /nebang/ → munebang Menebang
2. /pe-/ /pe-/ + /dabak/ → pedabak penipu / pembohong
3. /be-/ /be-/ + /atur/ → beratur Teratur
4. /ke-/ /ke-/ + / due/ → kedue Kedua
5. /te-/ /te-/ + /remah/ → teremah Terbawa
6. /i-/ . /i-/ + /perjak/ → iperjak diinjak (pasif)
7. /se-/ /se-/ + /métér / → semétér satu meter
2. Infixes 1./-em-/ /-em-/ + /ralan/ → remalan Berjalan
2. /-en-/ /-en-/ + /taring/ → tenaring Peninggalan
3. Suffixes 1. /-an/, /-en/
/-an/ + / uten/ → anuten Hanyutkan
2. /-i/,
/-ni/
/-i/ + /muneram/ →munerami Menerjangi
3. /-é/,
/-ku/,
/-mu/,
/-mé/,
/té/.
/-é/ + /ijuel/ → ijuelé
/-ku/ + /ama/ → amaku
/-mu/ + /baju/ → bajumu
/-mé/ + /ine/ →inemé
/té/ + /umah/ → umahté
Dijualnya
bapakku
bajumu
ibu kalian
rumah kita
3. /-a/ /-a/ + /ama/ →ama’a bapak itu
4. /-ke/ /-ke/ + /ara/ →arake adakah?
5. /- le/ /- le/ + /oya/ →oyale Itulah
6. /-mi/ /-mi/ + /beluh/ →beluhmi Pergilah
7. /-péh/ /-péh/ + /aku/ →akupéh Akupun
2.3 A Brief Discussion of Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive Linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or more
languages, which its goal is to describe their similarities and differences. The
objective of the comparison may vary: language comparison is of great interest in
a theoretical as well as an applied perspective. It reveals what is general and what
is language specific and therefore it is important both for the understanding of
language in general and for the study of the individual languages compared. The
focus may be on general or on language specific features. The study may be
theoretical, without any immediate application, or it may be applied, i.e. carried
out for a specific purpose. The term 'contrastive linguistics', or 'contrastive
analysis', is especially associated with applied contrastive studies advocated as a
means of predicting and or explaining difficulties of second language learners
with a particular mother tongue in learning a particular target language.
02/2010).
Contrastive linguistics is a practice-oriente
to describe the differences and similarities between a pair of languages (hence it is
occasionally called "differential linguistics"). 'Contrastive linguistics' (CL) is
synonymous with 'contrastive analysis' (CA) but only the latter is a countable
noun. It is a form of comparative linguistics, related forms being 'comparative
diachronic linguistics' and 'synchronic linguistic typology'. Unique to
Comparative Linguistics is that its purview is limited to a pair of languages. There
development of Contrastive analysis has been viewed from an applied to a
theoretical discipline.
Contrastive Analysis (CA) or Contrastive Linguistics (CL): "In the study
of foreign language learning, the identification of points of structural similarity
and difference between two languages. "Contrastive analysis was developed and
practiced in the 1950s and 1960s as application of structural linguistics to
language teaching". Contrastive Analysis a describing similarities and differences
among two or more languages at such levels as phonology, grammar, and
semantics. (http://www. lotsofessays.com/ viewpaper/1683824.html, Feb, 02
2010).
The study began in Central Europe before the Second World War and
developed afterwards in North America. In the United States in the late 1950s,
Robert Lado proposed contrastive analysis as a means of identifying areas of
difficulty for language learners, although already in 1945 Charles Fries had
formulated the theory. The earlier contrastive analysis research was
language-focused. During the pre-Chomsky an structuralism period, linguists examined
features of the native language which contrasted with features of the foreign
language, indicating that these would be areas most likely to cause difficulty for
foreign language learners.
By the early 1970s, this contrastive analysis theory had been to an extent
supplanted by error analysis, which examined not only the impact of transfer
errors but also those related to the target language, including overgeneralization
because each grammatical or phonological system has to be defined in terms of
the language for which it--and only it--has been developed. Transformational
generative grammars assume the existence of universals, so that, in theory at least,
a complete transformational grammar is already a potential contrastive analysis
with other languages. Before the writer is going further to analyses the contrast of
question word between English and Mandailing languages, it is worth to know
what contrastive study means.
Actually, contrastive linguistics has been related with comparative
linguistic. Contrastive linguistics is a language science that observes the non-
correspondences which consist in two or more language family and then
comparative linguistics intends to search the correspondences and non-
correspondences of the comparing languages, while contrastive analysis only
observes the non- correspondences, which are so different in two or more
languages. But the correspondences are not so important and they are regarded as
a general one. The similar is both of them doing a comparison between two or
more languages.
Contrastive linguistics is the study to find out the similarities and
differences between to different background language. The aim of this study is not
merely to find the similarities and dissimilarities only, but the more important
thing is to support the process of teaching and learning foreign language.
Ridwan.T.A(1998:17) says that contrastive analysis refers to
correspondences between aspects of language. In other books Naibaho Jawasi
and similarities of two or more language (or sub-system of language) are made
explicit.
In accordance with the above idea, contrastive analysis is actually a
working procedure where the activity or the duty is trying to compare the first
language structure with the second language in order to identify the non-
correspondence of two languages. The non- correspondences of two languages in
the different language family that are got and produced by contrastive analysis can
be used as the reason in predicting the difficulties in learning the languages that
will be faced by the students, even for those who study language.
2.4 Previews Theory
In writing this thesis, the writer uses the some theories from books and
theses which are related to this topic.
First, Ridwan (1998:8) in An Introduction to Phonetics and Grouphemic.
This book explains about the definition and concept of Contrastive Analysis.
Some ideas are taken by the writer writing this thesis. For example, Ridwan states
that Analisis Kontrastif adalah suatu proses penganalisisan linguistic yang
berusaha mendeskripsikan, membuktikan, dan menguraikan perbedaan atau persamaan aspek-aspek kebahasaan dari dua bahasa atau lebih yang dibandingkan.
Second, Francis Katamba (1993) in Modern Linguistics: Morphology. This
book tells about the explanation of Morphology in general. The writer takes some
definitions in supporting this writing. Katamba says that an affix is a morpheme
Third, Eugene A. Nida (1967) in Mrphology :The Desriptive Analysis of
Words. This book tells about the understanding of morphology in general. Some
definition and description of word taken from this book. According to Nida,
Morphology is the study of morphemes and their arrangements in forming words
(1967 : 1).
Fourth, Dardanila (1985) in Perbandingan Afiksasi Bahasa Gayo Dialek
Gayo LUT dengan Afiksasi Bahasa Indonesia. The writer takes the data from this
book which are related to this writing.
Fifth, Raykan (1986) in Suatu Analisis Kontrastif Afiksasi Bahasa Inggeris
dan Bahasa Banten. This thesis talks about the kontrastif beween English and
Bantenese in the use of prefix. Some data taken from this book especially the
English prefix data. For example, uncover derives from prefix /un-/ and /cover/
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH OF METHOD 3.1 Research Design
There are some steps which the writer taken in the process of thesis
writing. They are as follows:
1. The writer will collect the data from other theses: Dardanila (1985),
Rakyan (1986) and Wahab (2008).
2. The writer will make the prefix in English and Gayonese as the main
object of the analysis which are analyzed form aspect of form,
distribution, function and meaning.
3. The writer will contrast them and make a general conclusion from the
analysis.
3.2 Data and Data Source
The data taken from previous theses which the topics are related to this
writing. They are:
1. Dardanila (1985) titled Perbandingan Afiksasi Bahasa Gayo Dialek Gayo
LUT dengan Afiksasi Bahasa Indonesia and Drs. H. M. Salim Wahab
(2008) titled Tata Bahsa Gayo Lues. From these theses, the writer took the
prefixes in Gayonese as the data .
2. Rakyan. (1986) titled Suatu Analisis Kontrastif Afiksasi Bahasa Inggeris
dan Bahasa Banten. From this thesis, the writer tokk the prefixes in
3.3 Data Collecting Method
In collecting data, the writer uses library research. Library research as the
method of research is applied in this thesis to find some relevant theories that
support the writing especially from all references deal with Contrastive Analysis.
The writer collects the data from books and previous theses related to English and
Gayonese Language Prefixes.
3.4 Data Analysis Method
The data found then analyzed based on contrastive analysis. Qualitative
Descriptive method is applied in the process of analysis because the writer needs
to describe the data more deeply.
As quoted from Burhan Bungin’s book:
“Penelitian kualitatif adalah penelitian yang dilakukan dengan keterbatasan sasaran penelitian tetapi kedalaman data/ kualitas data tidak terbatas. Semakin berkualitas data yang dikumpulkan, semakin berkualitas penelitian tersebut.” (Qualiative Researsh is the research done with the limitation of goals but unlimitation of qualified data.)
The writer also apply the descriptive method to describe the fact as the
way it is to the readers. This thesis also is simply about fact-finding. Nawawi
(1993 :31) states that Qualitative Descriptive is a research method that is an effort
to solve a problem or a condition or an event as the way it is. In other words, this
CHAPTER IV
THE ANALYSIS OF PREFIXES IN ENGLISH AND GAYONESS
4.1 ENGLISH
4.1.1 Form
The analysis of prefixes in English based on form are as follows:
a) un- / лn /
1. cover / kлvə /
uncover → un- + cover
2. belief / bili:f /
unbelief → un- + belief
3. able / eibl /
unable → un- + able
b) en- / in- /
1. Slave / sleiv /
enslave → en- + slave
2. courage / kлridЗ /
encourage → en- + courage
3. camp / kæmp /
encamp → en- + camp
4. act / ækt /
c) re- / ri- /
1. call / kə:l /
recall → re- + call
2. fill /fil /
refill → re- + fill
3. enter /entə /
reenter → re- + enter
4. address /ə’dress /
readdress → re- + address
d ) pre- / pri:- /
1. conception / kənsep∫ən /
preconception → pre- + conception
2. exist / ig’zist /
preexist → pre- + exist
3. election / i’lək∫ən /
preelection → pre- + election
e ) fore- / fə:- /
1. castle / kæsəl /
forecastle → fore- + castle
2. man / mæn /
3. tell / tel /
foretell → fore- + tell
f) out- / aut- /
1. run / rлn /
outrun → out- + run
2. cry / krai /
outcry → out- + cry
3. argue / ‘a:gju: /
outargue → out- + argue
g) over- / əuvə- /
1. act / ækt /
overact → over- + act
2. eat / i:t /
overeat → over- + eat
3. size / saiz /
oversize → over- + size
h) under- / лndə- /
1. age / eidЗ /
underage → under- + age
2. ground / graund /
underground → under- + ground
underwear → under- + wear
i) with- / wið- /
1. draw / dro: /
withdraw → with- + draw
2. stand / stænd /
withstand → with- + stand
3. out / aut /
without → with- + out
j) mis- / mis- /
1. cast / ka:st /
miscast → mis- + cast
2. count /kaunt /
miscount → mis- + count
3. information / info:mei∫ən /
misinformation → mis- + information
4.1.2 Distribution
The analysis of prefixes in English based on form are as follows:
a) un- / лn / verbs
1. pack / pæk /
2. cut / kлt /
uncut → un- + cut
nouns
1. cage / keidЗ /
uncage → un- + cage
2. voice / vois /
unvoice → un- + voice
adjectives
1. afraid /ə’freid /
unafraid → un- + afraid
2. kind / kaind /
unkind → un- + kind
3. pleasant / pleiznt /
unpleasant → un- + pleasant
adverbs
1. certainly / sə:tnli /
uncertainly → un- + certainly
2. fortunately / fo:t∫ənitli /
unfortunately → un- + fortunately
a) en- / in- / verbs
enjoin → en- + join
2. force / fo:s /
enforce → en- + force
3. close / klous /
enclose → en- + close
nouns
1. camp /kæmp /
encamp → en- + camp
2. act / æk /
enact → en- + act
3. list / list /
enlist → en- + list
adjectives
1. danger / deindЗə /
endanger → en- + danger
2. sure / ∫uə /
ensure → en- + sure
3. rich / rit∫ /
enrich → en- + rich
b) re- / ri- / nouns
recondition → re- +
condition
2. birth / bə:ð /
rebirth → re- + birth
3. sound / saund /
resound → re- + sound
verbs
1. check / t∫ek / → re- + check
recheck
2. marry / mæri /
remarry → re- + marry
3. make / meik /
remake → re- + make
adjectives
1. fine / fain /
refine → re- + fine
2. fresh / fre∫ /
refresh → re- + fresh
d ) pre- / pri:- / nouns
1. election / i'lek∫ən /
2. war / wo: /
prewar → pre- + war
3. domination / domine∫ən /
predomination → pre- +domination
verbs
1. arrange / ə’reindЗ /
prearrange → pre- + arrange
2. heat / hi:t /
preheat → pre- + heat
3. conceive / kənsi:v /
preconceive → pre- +concieve
adjectives
1. mature / mat∫uə /
premature → pre- + mature
2. caution / ko:∫ən
precaution → pre- + caution
e ) fore- / fə:- / nouns
1. father / fa: ðə /
forefather → fore- + father
2. castle / kæsəl /
verbs
1. see / si: /
foresee → fore- + see
2. tell / tel /
foretell → fore- + tell
3. go /gəu /
forego → fore- + go
f) out- / aut- / nouns
1. house / haus /
outhouse → out- + house
2. law / lo: /
outlaw → out- + law
verbs
1. run / rлn/
outrun → out- + run
2. sell / sel /
outsell → out- + sell
3. weigh /wei /
g) over- / əuvə- / nouns
1. age / eidЗ /
overage → over- + age
2. tax / tæks /
overtax → over- + tax
3. value / vælju: /
overvalue → over- + value
verbs
1. eat / i:t /
overeat → over- + eat
2. pay / pei /
overpay → over- + pay
3. kill / kil /
overkill → over- + kill
h) under- / лndə- / nouns
1. foot / fut /
underfoot → under- + foot
2. shirt /∫ə:t /
3. arm / a:m /
underarm → under- + arm
verbs
1. go /gəu /
undergo → under- + go
2. take / teik /
undertake → under- + take
i) with- / wið- / verbs
1. draw / dro: /
withdraw → with- + draw
2. stand / stænd /
withstand → with- + stand
preposition
1. out / aut /
without → with- + out
2. in / in /
within → with- + in
j) mis- / mis- / nouns
1. name / neim /
2. information / info:mei∫ən /
misinformation → mis- +information
verbs
1. count / kaunt /
miscount → mis- + count
2. use / ju:s /
misuse → mis- + use
3. speak / spi:k /
misspeak → mis- + speak
4.1.3 Function In English:
a) un- / лn /
Prefix / un- / changes noun into verb
1. cage / keidЗ /
uncage → un- + cage
2. lock / lok /
unlock → un- + lock
3. chain / t∫ein /
unchain → un- + chain
1. necessary / nesisəri /
unnecessary → un- +
necessary
2. beautiful / bju:tif(u)l /
unbeautiful → un- +
beautiful
3. sure / ∫uə /
unsure → un- + sure
Prefix / un- / do not change class word if it is attached by verbs. However, sometimes it changes into adjectives.
1. say / sei /
unsay → un- + say
2. pack / pæk /
unpack → un- + pack
3. proved / pru:vd /
unproved → un- + proved
4. punished / pлni∫d /
unpunished → un- +punished
b) en- / in- /
Changes nouns into verbs.
1. camp / kæmp /
2. list / list /
enlist → en- + list
3. title / taitl /
entitle → en- + title
Changes adjectives into verbs.
1. joy / dЗoi /
enjoy → en- + joy
2. large / la:dЗ /
enlarge → en- + large
3. rich / rit∫ /
enrich → en- + rich
Does not change the word class if it is attaching with verbs.
1. join /dЗoin /
enjoin → en- + join
2. force / fo:s /
enforce → en- + force
c ) re- / ri- /
Changes nouns into verbs. 1. place / pleis /
replace → re- + place
2. sound / səund /
Changes adjectives into verbs.
1. fine /fain /
refine → re- + fine
2 fresh / fre∫ /
refresh → re- + fresh
Does not change the word class if it is attaching with verbs.
1. write / rait /
rewrite → re- + write
2. check / t∫ek /
recheck → re- + check
3. marry / mæri /
remarry → re- + marry
d ) pre- / pri:- /
Changes nouns into verbs. 1. judge /dЗлdЗ /
prejudge → pre- + judge
2. heat / hi:t /
prehit \ → pre- + heat
3. record / riko:d /
prerecord → pre- + record
1. pay / pei /
prepay → pre- + pay
2. mature / mət∫u /
premature → pre- + mature
3. domination /domine∫ən /
predomination → pre- +domination
e ) fore- / fə:- /
Changes verbs and adverbs into adjectives ( in some ways ) and changes nouns into verbs.
1. doom / du:m /
foredoom → fore- + doom
2. front / fraлnt /
forefront → fore- + front
3. go / gəu /
forego → fore- + go
4. most / most /
foremost → fore- + most
Generally does not change word classes. 1. head / hed /
forehead → fore- + head
2. tell / tel /
3. castle / kæsəl /
forecastle → fore- + castle
f) out- / aut- /
Changes verbs into nouns.
1. cry / krai /
outcry → out- + cry
2. look / luk /
outlook → out- + look
3. put / put /
output → out- + put
Changes nouns into adverbs.
1. house / haus /
outhouse → out- + house
2. law / lo: /
outlaw → out- + law
3. run / rлn /
outrun → out- + run
4. sell / sel /
outsell → out- + sell
g) over- / əuvə- /
Changes nouns into verbs.
overact → over- + act
2. charge / t∫a:dЗ /
overcharge → over- + charge
3. water / wo:tə /
overwater → over- + water
4. dress / dres/
overdress → over- + dress
Changes verbs into nouns.
1. kill / kil /
overkill → over- + kill
2. drive / draiv /
overdrive → over- + drive
Changes noun into adjectives.
1. head / hed /
overhead → over- + head
2. age / eidЗ /
overage → over- + age
3. size / saiz /
oversize → over- + size
In some ways, it does not change the word classes.
1. tone / təun /
2. look / luk /
overlook → over- + look
3. stay / stai /
overstay → over- + stay
h) under- / лndə- /
Changes nouns into adjectives.
1. sea / si: /
undersea → under- + sea
2. size / saiz /
undersize → under- + size
3. age / eidЗ /
underage → under- + age
Changes verbs into adjectives.
1. done / dлn /
underdone → under- + done
2. lie / lai /
underlie → under- + lie
Changes verbs into nouns.
1. study / stлdi /
understudy → under- + study
2. pass / pas /
Changes nouns into verbs.
1. rate / reit /
underrate → under- + rate
2. score / sko: /
underscore → under- + score
In some ways, it does not change the word classes.
1. go / gə /
undergo → under- + go
2. world / wə:ld /
underworld → under- + world
3. dog / dog /
underdog → under- + dog
4. stand / stænd /
understand → under- + stand
i) with- / wið- /
Does not change word classes.
1. draw / dro: /
withdraw → with- + draw
2. stand / stænd /
withstand → with- + stand
3. out / aut /
4. in / in /
within → with- + in
j) mis- / mis- /
Changes nouns into verbs.
1. place / pleis /
misplace → mis- + place
2. name / neim /
misname → mis- + name
Changes verbs into nouns.
1. take / teik /
mistake → mis- + take
2. conduct / kəndлkt /
misconduct → mis- +conduct
Does not change word classes.
1. speak /spi:k /
misspeak → mis- + speak
2. count / kaunt /
miscount → mis- + count
3. information / info:mei∫ən /
misinformation → mis- + information
4. pronounciation / prə’nлnsiei∫ən /
4.1.4 Meaning
a) un- / лn /
Generally shows the meaning which is opposite with the meaning of based form.
1. able / eibel /
unable → un- + able
2. pack / pæk /
unpack → un- + pack
3. voice / vois /
unvoice → un- + voice
4. certainly / sə:tnli /
uncertainly → un- + certainly
b) en- / in- /
Show an action which is still related to what is stated in the based form.
1. camp / kæmp /
encamp → en- + camp
2. large / la:dЗ /
enlarge → en- + large
3. join / dЗoin /
c) re- / ri- /
Shows the meaning of ‘redo’ an action which is stated in the based form.
1. condition / kən’di∫ən /
recondition → re- +condition
2. check / t∫ek /
recheck → re- + check
3. fine /fain/
refine → re- + fine
d ) pre- / pri:- /
Shows the meaning of ‘before’ or ‘previous’.
1. election /I’lek∫ən/
preelection → pre- +election
2. war / wo: /
prewar → pre- + war
3. arrange / əreindЗ /
prearrange → pre- + arrange
4. mature / mət∫uə /
premature → pre- + mature
5. heat /hi:t /
e ) fore- / fə:- /
Shows the meaning of ‘before’ or ‘previous’
1. doom /du:m/
foredoom → fore- + doom
2. taste /teist/
foretaste → fore- + taste
3. warn /wo:n/
forewarn → fore- + warn
Shows the meaning of ‘in front’ or ‘in the beginning’
1. ground /graund/
foreground → fore- + ground
2. leg / leg /
foreleg → fore- + leg
3. sight /sait/
foresight → fore- + sight
f) out- / aut- /
Shows the meaning of ‘more than’ which is stated in the based form.
1. run /rлn/
outrun → out- + run
2. cry /krai/
3. rank /ræŋk/
outrank → out- + rank
Shows something which is ‘out’ of the based form.
1. house /haus/
outhouse → out- + house
2. law /lo:/
outlaw → out- + law
g) over- / əuvə- /
Shows the meaning of ‘too’
1. charge /t∫a:dЗ/
overcharge → over- + charge
2. sleep /sli:p/
oversleep → over- + sleep
Show the meaning ‘above’ or through’
1. water /wo:tə/
overwater → over- + water
2. land /lænd/
overland → over- + land
3. head /hed/
h) under- / лndə- /
Shows the meaning of ‘less’ or ‘insufficient’
1. charge /t∫a:dЗ/
undercharge → under- + charge
2. done /dлn/
underdone → under- + done
3. estimate /estimeit/
underestimate → undr- +estimate
Shows the meaning of ‘under’ or ‘in’
1. current /kлrət/
undercurrent → under- + current
2. shirt /∫ə:t/
undershirt → under- + shirt
3. ground /graund/
underground → under- + ground
4. sea /si:/
undersea → under- + sea
i) with- / wið- /
Show an action which is still related to what is stated in the based form.
1. draw /dro:/
2. stand /stænd/
withstand → with- + stand
3. out /aut/
without → with- + out
4. in /in/
within → with- + in
j) mis- / mis- /
Shows the meaning of ‘bad’
1. behavior /biheivjə/
misbehavior → mis- +behavior
2. deed /di:d/
misdeed → mis- + deed
Shows the meaning of ‘wrong’
1. read /ri:d/
misread → mis- + read
2. speak /spi:k/
misspeak → mis- + speak
3. advice /edvais/
GAYONESE 4.1 Form
The analysis of prefixes in Gayonese based on form are as follows:
a) /mu-/
/mu-/ + base forms started with the phoneme /b/, /d/, /g/, /j/, /l/, /m/, and /n/ does not change the form.
1. munebang / munebaŋ / (to cut down)
munebang → mu- +/nebang/
2. munikot /munikot/ (to tide)
munikot → mu- + /nikot/
3. mubelah /mubelah/ (to cut into two side)
mubelah → mu- + /belah/
4. mudere /mudere/ (to beat)
mudere → mu- + /dere/
5. mugoer /mugoer/ (to spin)
mugoer → mu- + /goer/
/mu-/ + base forms started with consonant /k/ changes into /mung-/ while the consonant /k/ is deleted.
1. mungayuh /muŋayuh/ (to row)
mungayuh → mu- + /kayuh/
2. mungekor /muŋækor/
mungekor → mu- + /kekor/
mungucak → mu- + /kucak/
/mu-/ + base forms started with consonant /p/ changes into /mum-/ while the consonant /p/ is deleted.
1. mumenge /mumeŋe/ (to listen)
mumenge → mu- + /penge/
2. mumies /mumies/ (to pick)
mumies → mu- + /pies/
/mu-/ + base forms started with consonant /s/ changes into /muny-/ while the consonant /s/ is deleted.
1. munyantir /munyantir/
munyantir → mu- + /santir/
2. munyibak /munyibak/
munyibak → mu- + /sibak/
3. munyibur /munyibur/
munyibur → mu- + /sibur/
/mu-/ + base forms started with the vowel /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/ and consonant /t/ changes into /mun-/ while the consonant /t/ is deleted.
1. muneleh /muneleh/
muneleh → mu- + /eleh/
2. munikot /munikot/
munikot → mu- + /ikot/
3. munangkap /munaŋkap/
4. muneldok /muneldok/
muneldok → mu- +
/teldok/
b) /pe-/
/pe-/ does not change when it is attached to base forms started with
consonant /b/, /c/, /j/, /l/, /m/, /n/, and /r/.
1. pebening /pebeniŋ/ (quite)
pebening → pe +/bening/
2. pecogah /pet∫ogah/
pecogah → pe + /cogah/
3. pejamah /pejamah/
pejamah → pe + /jamah/
4. peluah /peluah/
peluah → pe + /luah/
5. pemerke /pemerke/
pemerke → pe +
/merke/
6. penome /penome/
/pe-/ changes into /peng-/ when it is attached to base forms started with
consonant /g/, /k/, and the consonant /k/ is deleted.
1. penggoer /peŋgoer/
penggoer → /pe-/ + /goer/
2. pengayuh /peŋayuh/
pengayuh → /pe-/ + /kayuh/
3. pengemas /peŋemas/
pengemas → /pe-/ +/kemas/
/pe-/ changes into /per-/ when it is attached to base forms started with
vowels.
1. perengon /pereŋon/
perengon → /pe-/ + /engon/
2. perine /perine/
perine → /pe-/ + /ine /
3. perusuh /perusuh/
perusuh → /pe-/ + /usuh /
/pe-/ changes into /peny-/ when it is attached to base forms started with
consonant /s /, and the consonant /s/ is deleted.
penyare → /pe-/ + /sare /
2. penyesah /penyesah/
penyesah → /pe-/ + /sesah /
3. penyuen /penyuen/
penyuen → /pe-/ + /suen/
/pe-/ changes into /pen-/ when it is attached to base forms started with
consonant /d/, /t/, and the consonant /t/ is deleted.
1. pendere /pendere/
pendere → /pe-/ + /dere/
2. penelong /peneloŋ/
penelong → /pe-/ +
/telong/
3. penona /penona/
penona → /pe-/ + /tona/
c) /be-/
/be-/ changes into /ber-/ when it is attached to base forms started with
vowels.
1. bewares /bewares/
2. berempus /berempus/
berempus → /be-/ +/empus/
3. berikot /berikot/
berikot → /be-/ + /ikot/
4. beroros /beroros/
beroros → /be-/ + /oros/
5. beruak /beruak/
beruak → /be-/ + /uak/
/be-/ does not change into when it is attached to base forms started
with consonant /b/, /c/, /d/, /g/, /t/, and /w/.
1. beberu /beberu/
beberu → /be-/ + /beru/
2. becere /becere/
becere → /be-/ + /cere/
3. bedere /bedere/
bedere → /be-/ + /dere/
4. begeral /begeral/
5. betikon /betikon/
betikon → /be-/ + /tikon/
6. beweh /beweh/
beweh → /be-/ + /weh/
d) /i-/
/i-/ does not change into when it is attached to base forms started with
vowel /a/, /e/, /u/ and consonant /b/, /g/, /s/.
1. iamat /iamat/
iamat → /i-/ + /amat/
2. iengon /ieŋon/
iengon → /i-/ + /engon/
3. iusuh /iusuh/
iusuh → /i-/ + /usuh/
4. ibesik /ibesik/
ibesik → /i-/ + /besik/
5. igeleh /igeleh/
igeleh → /i-/ + /geleh/
isuen → /i-/ + /suen/
e) /ke-/
/ke-/ does not change into when it is attached to base forms started
with vowel /o/ and consonant /s/, /r/, /t/, /w/.
1. keonom /keonom/
keonom → /ke-/ + /onom/
2. kesara /kesara/
kesara → /ke-/ + /sara/
3. keroa /keroa/
keroa → /ke-/ + /roa/
4. ketulu /ketulu/
ketulu → /ke-/ + /tulu/
5. kewaluh /kewaluh/
kewaluh → /ke-/ + /waluh/
f) /te-/
/te-/ changes into /ter-/ when it is attached to base forms started with
vowels.
1. terarung /teraruŋ/
2. teriup /teriup/
teriup → /te-/ + /iup/
3. terulu /terulu/
terulu → /te-/ + /ulu/
4. tererah /tererah/
tererah → /te-/ + /erah/
5. teroron /teroron/
teroron → /te-/ + /oron/
/te-/ does not change into when it is attached to base forms started with
consonants.
1. tebedil /tebedil/
tebedil → /te-/ + /bedil/
2. tecum /tet∫um/
tecum → /te-/ + /cum/
3. tesesah /tesesah/
tesesah → /te-/ + /sesam/
4. terui /terui/
g) /se-/
/se-/ changes into /sen-/ when it is attached to the word “are”.
1. senare /senare/
senare → /se-/ + /are/
/se-/ changes into /seng-/ when it is attached to the word “kal”.
1. sengkal /seŋkal/
sengkal → /se-/ + /kal/
/se-/ does not change when it is to attached to base forms started with
vowe /a/, /i/, /u/ and consonant /c/, /r/, /t/, /g/, /k/, /l/, /p/, /b/, /j/.
1. seawak /seawak/
seawak → /se-/ + /awak/
2. seuku /seuku/
seuku → /se-/ + /uku/
3. secemca /set∫emt∫a/
secemca → /se-/ +/cemca/
4. serengom /sereŋom/
serengom → /se-/ +/rengom/
seteracak → /se-/ +/teracak/
6. segerbak /segerbak/
segerbak → /se-/ +/gerbak/
7. sekul /sekul/
sekul → /se-/ + /kul/
8. selo /selo/
selo → /se-/ + /lo/
9. sepingen /sepiŋen/
sepingen → /se-/ +/pingen/
10. sebelo /sebelo/
sebelo → /se-/ + /belo/
11. sejurung /sejuruŋ/
sejurung → /se-/ +/jurung/
4.2.2 Distribution
a) /mu-/
/mu-/ can be attached with based form :
Nouns
mugunting → /mu-/ +/gunting/
2. mujelbang /mujelbaŋ/
mujelbang → /mu-/ +/jelbang/
3. muume /muume/
muume → /mu-/ + /ume/
Verbs
1. mudere /mudere/
mudere → /mu-/ + /dere/
2. muniri /muniri/
muniri → /mu-/ + /niri/
3. musuen /munyuen/
munyuen → /mu-/ + /suen/
Adverbs
1. mungucak /muŋut∫ak/
mungucak → /mu-/ + /kucak/
2. mungonot /muŋonot/
mungonot → /mu-/ + /konot/
munaru → /mu-/ + /naru/
Numerals
1. muroa /muroa/
muroa → /mu-/ + /roa/
2. munyara /munyara/
munyara → /mu-/ + /sara/
3. muwaluh /muwaluh/
muwaluh → /mu-/ + /waluh/
b) /pe-/
Nouns
1. pejema /pejema/
pejema → /pe-/ + /jema/
2. penjelbang /penjelbaŋ/
penjelbang → /pe-/ +/jelbang/
3. penime /penime/
penime → /pe-/ + /time/
Verbs
pendere → /pe-/ + /dere/
2. penjerang /penjeraŋ/
penjerang → /pe-/ +
/jerang/
3. penipak /penipak/
penipak → /pe-/ + /tipak/
Adverbs
1. pebengis /pebeŋis/
pebengis → /pe-/ + bengis/
2. pengemel /peŋemel/
pengemel → /pe-/ + /kemel/
3. penereh /penereh/
penereh → /pe-/ + /tereh/
c) /be-/
Nouns
1. berama /berama/
berama → /be-/ + /ama/
berulung → /be-/ + /ulung/
3. beweh /beweh/
beweh → /be-/ + /weh/
Verbs
1. becerak /bet∫erak/
becerak → /be-/ + /cerak/
2. benyanyi /benyanyi/
benyanyi → /be-/ +/nyanyi/
3. besuh /besuh/
besuh → /be-/ + /suh/
d) /i-/
Nouns
1. icemca /it∫emt∫a/
icemca → /i-/ + cemca/
2. isupu /isupu/
isupu → /i-/ + /supu/
3. itime /itime/
Verbs
1. ijule /ijule/
ijule → /i-/ + /jule/
2. ieten /ieten/
ieten → /i-/ + /eten/
3. igoer /igoer/
igoer → /i-/ + /goer/
Numerals
1. isara /isara/
isara → /i-/ + /sara/
2. iroa /iroa/
iroa → /i-/ + /roa/
3. iwaluh /iwaluh/
iwaluh → /i-/ + /waluh/
e) /ke-/
Numerals
kesara → /ke-/ + /sara/
2. keroa /keroa/
keroa → /ke-/ + /roa/
3. keopat /keopat/
keopat → /ke-/ + /opat/
f) /te-/
Nouns
1. tetime /tetime/
tetime → /te-/ + /time/
2. terui /terui/
terui → /te-/ + /rui/
3. tetulen /tetulen/
tetulen → /te-/ + /tulen/
Verbs
1. tedere /tedere/
tedere → /te-/ + /dere/
2. tenome /tenome/
3. teroroh /teroroh/
teroroh → /te-/ + /roroh/
Adverbs
1. tenaru /tenaru/
tenaru → /te-/ + /naru/
2. tekucak /tekut∫ak/
tekucak → /te-/ + /kucak/
3. tekul /tekul/
tekul → /te-/ + /kul/
g) /se-/
Nouns
1. senare /senare/
senare → /se-/ + /nare/
2. serege /serege/
serege → /se-/ + /rege/
3. sekuren /sekuren/
sekuren → /se-/ + /kuren/
1. serengom /sereŋom/
serengom → /se-/ +/rengom/
2. seikot /seikot/
seikot → /se-/ + /ikot/
3. sekerat /sekerat/
sekerat → /se-/ + /kerat/
4.2.3 Function
a) /mu-/
It changes Nouns into Verbs when /mu-/ is attached to Nouns.
1. mugunting /muguntiŋ/
mugunting → /mu-/ +/gunting/
2. mujelbang /mujelbaŋ/
mujelbang → /mu-/ +/jelbang/
3. munime /munime/
munime → /mu-/ + /nime/
b) /pe-/
It changes Verbs into Nouns
pendere → /pe-/ + /dere/
2. penyintak /penyintak/
penyintak → /pe-/ + /sintak/
3. penyuket /penyuket/
penyuket → /pe-/ + /suket/
It changes Adverbs into Nouns
1. pebengis /pebeŋis/
pebengis → /pe-/ + bengis/
2. pengemel /peŋemel/
pengemel → /pe-/ + /kemel/
3. penereh /penereh/
penereh → /pe-/ + /tereh/
c) /be-/
It changes Nouns into Verbs
1. begule /begule/
begule → /be-/ + /gule/
2. bersume /bersume/
3. berutem /berutem/
berutem → /be-/ + /utem/
d) /i-/
It changes Nouns into Verbs
1. itime /itime/
itime → /i-/ + /time/
2. ijelbang /ijelbaŋ/
ijelbang → /i-/ +/jelbang/
3. ikunci /ikunt∫i/
ikunci → /i-/ + /kunci/
It has no function when it is attached to Verbs.
1. isuen /isuen/
isuen → /i-/ + /suen/
2. itegu /itegu/
itegu → /i-/ + /tegu/
3. itipak /itipak/
itipak → /i-/ + /tipak/
1. itulu /itulu/
itulu → /i-/ + /tulu/
e) /ke-/
It has a function to form Level of Numerals
1. kesara /kesara/
kesara → /ke-/ + /sara/
2. kepitu /kepitu/
kepitu → /ke-/ + /pitu/
3. kesiwah /kesiwah/
kesiwah → /ke-/ + /siwah/
f) /te-/
It has function to form passive sentence.
1. tenome /tenome/
tenome → /te-/ + /nome/
2. teselok /teselok/
teselok → /te-/ + /selok/
3. temah /temah/
It has no function when it is attached to Adverbs.
1. tenaru /tenaru/
tenaru → /te-/ + /naru/
2. tekucak /tekut∫ak/
tekucak → /te-/ + /kucak/
3. tekul /tekul/
tekul → /te-/ + /kul/
g) /se-/
It changes Nouns into Numbers
1. serilah /serilah/
serilah → /se-/ + /rilah/
2. sesentong /sesentoŋ/
sesentong → /se-/ +sentong/
3. secemca /set∫emt∫a/
secemca → /se-/ + cemca/
4.2.4 Meaning
Shows the meaning of “ to have”
1. mukoro /mokoro/
mukoro → /mu-/ + /koro/
2. mureta /mureta/
mureta → /mu-/ + /reta/
3. muumah /muumah/
muumah → /mu-/ + /umah/
Shows the meaning of “ to become”
1. mugotol /mugo tol/
mugotol → /mu-/ + /gotol/
2. munaru /munaru/
munaru → /mu-/ + /naru/
3. muroa /muroa/
muroa → /mu-/ + /roa/
Shows the meaning of “ to do”
1. munawe /munawe/
munawe → /mu-/ + /nawe/
mununuh → /mu-/ +
/nunuh/
3. munusuh /munusuh/
munusuh → /mu-/ + /nusuh/
Shows the meaning of “ unconscious action”
1. muperjak /muperjak/
muperjak → /mu-/ +
/perjak/
2. munyentur /munyentur/
munyentur → /mu-/ + /sentur/
3. munyewek /munyewek/
munyewek → /mu-/ +
/sewek/
Shows the meaning of “ to throw”
1. mungisip /muŋisip/
mungisip → /mu-/ + /kisip/
2. mulamut /mulamut/
mulamut → /mu-/ + /lamut/
Shows the meaning of “ calls ”
1. perama /perama/
perama → /pe-/ + /ama/
2. perine /perine/
perine → /pe-/ + /ine/
Shows the meaning of “ in a situation of …”
1. pebening /pebeniŋ/
pebening → /pe-/ +/bening/
2. perenem /perenem/
perenem → /pe-/ +
/renem/
Shows the meaning of “ someone who likes….”
1. pebanan /pebanan/
pebanan → /pe-/ + /banan/
2. penjalu /penjalu/
penjalu → /pe-/ + /jalu/
3. pemangan /pemaŋan/
c) /be-/
Shows the meaning of “ the action done two person each other”
1. betipak /betipak/
betipak → /be-/ + /tipak/
2. berawen /berawen/
berawen → /be-/ + /awen/
3. berulek /berulek/
berulek → /be-/ + /ulek/
Shows the meaning of “ to do”
1. bebuet /bebuet/
bebuet → /be-/ + /buet/
2. becerak /becerak/
becerak → /be-/ + /cerak/
3. bejayun /bejayun/
bejayun → /be-/ + /jayun/
Shows the meaning of “ to use or to wear ”
1. begerbak /begerbak/
2. bekesume /bekesume/
bekesume → /be-/ +/kesume/
3. berupuh /berupuh/
berupuh → /be-/ + /upuh/
Shows the meaning of “ to call”
1. berumee /berumee/
berumee → /be-/ + /umee/
2. beraka /beraka/
beraka → /be-/ + /aka/
3. berengi /bereŋi/
berengi → /be-/ + /engi/
Shows the meaning of “ to achieve”
1. berempus /berempus/
berempus → /be-/ +/empus/
2. bekeletek /bekeletek/
bekeletek → /be-/ +/keletek/
3. berume /berume/
Shows the meaning of “ to look for”
1. begule /begule/
begule → /be-/ + /gule/
2. berutem /berutem/
berutem → /be-/ + /utem/
3. bewe /bewe/
bewe → /be-/ + /we/
d) /i-/
Shows the Passive sentence.
1. igecep /iget∫ep/
igecep → /i-/ + /gecep/
2. itipak /itipak/
itipak → /i-/ + /tipak/
3. iket /iket/
iket → /i-/ + /ket/
e) /ke-/
Shows the meaning of “order or level”
