an Error analysis in using reported speech of command

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AN ERROR ANALYSIS IN USING REPORTED SPEECH OF

COMMAND

(A Case Study at The Tenth Grade Student of MA Ummurrodiyah Tangerang)

By

Didin Muhidin

208014000043

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING

SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

JAKARTA

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ABSTRACT

ANERROR ANALYSIS IN USING REPORTED SPEECH OF COMMAND A Case Study at X Grade Student of MA Ummurrodiyah Pasar Kemis – Tangerang. Skripsi of English Education at Faculty of Tarbiyah and

Teachers’ of State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta 2015.

Advisor : 1. Dr. Fahriany, M.Pd. 2. Ummi Kultsum, M.Pd.

Keywords : Error Analysis, Reported Speech of Command

Theresearch was carried out to analyze students’ errors in using reported speech of command. The subjects of this were study 15 students of X grade of MA Ummurrodiyah Pasar Kemis – Tangerang academic years 2014 – 2015.

The method of this research was descriptive qualitative analysis. This research was conducted by following the procedures of error analysis: collecting data, identifying errors, counting errors then describing and interpreting data. The data needed were attained from students’ written test given by their English teacher.

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ABSTRAK

ANERROR ANALYSIS IN USING REPORTED SPEECH Of COMMAND A Case Study at X Grade Student of MA Ummurrodiyah Pasar Kemis – Tangerang. Skripsi, pendidikan bahasa inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan, Universitas Isalam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta 2015.

Pembimbing : 1. Dr. Fahriany, M.Pd 2. Ms. Ummi Kultsum, M.Pd

Kata kunci : Analisa kesalahan, Reported Speech of Command

Tujuan penelitianini untuk mengetahui dan menganalisa kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh siswa didalam menggunakan reported speech of command.

Persoalan ini melibatkan 15 siswa kelas X Ummurrodiyah Pasar Kemis – Tangerangacademic years 2014 – 2015.

Metode penelitian ini adalah kualitatif dalam bentuk deskriptif analisis. Penelitian ini diadakan dengan mengikuti prosedur analisis kesalahan: mengumpulkan data, mengidentifikasi kesalahan, kemudian menyebutkan dan menginterpretasikan data. Data yang di perlukan telah tercapai oleh siswa dari tes tertulis yang diberikan oleh guru bahasa inggris.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ِمــــــــيِحَرلا ِنــــــــَمْحَرلا ِهــــــــَللا ِمــــــــْسِب

In the name of Allah the Beneficent, the Merciful

Praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds, for His blessing, love, and mercy

given to the researcher, so she can complete the last assignment in her study.

Peace and blessing be upon our prophet Muhammad SAW., his family, his

companion, and his adherences.

In arranging this skripsi, a lot of people had given motivation, support,

advice and even remark that helped the researcher. In this opportunity, the

researcher would like to express great honor and gratitude to all of them.

First of all, He expresses great honor and sincere appreciation to his

supervisors, Dr. Fahriany, M.Pdand Ummi Kultsum, M.Pd. who have the

researcher given their suggestions and critical remarks in the process of

completing this skripsi.

Then, the researcher would like to those who helped him in finishing the

skripsi, among other:

1. To all lectures at Department of English Education, for their knowledge,

motivation, and patient during his study at Faculty of Tarbiyah and

Teachers’ Training Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University.

2. Drs. Syauki, M.Pd., the Head of Department of English Education.

3. Mr. Zahril Anasy, M.Hum, the secretary of Department of English

Education.

4. Prof. Dr. Ahmad Thib Raya, M.A., the Dean of Faculty of Tarbiyah and

Teachers’ Training Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University.

5. His deepest gratitude would be liked to express by the researcher to his

beloved parents, Mr. Asmunih and Ms. Muawanah, and the whole of his

family who had given support.

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7. All of the researcher friends for their support.

Furthermore, the researcher realizes that this skripsi is not considered ideal

without critiques and suggestions. Hence, any critiques and suggestions are

always welcomed by the researcher to make it better.

Jakarta, 12 January 2015

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Instrument 1 (test) ... 46

Instrument 2 (test) ... 47

Answer key ... 48

Hasil wawancara siswa (student 1) ... 49

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Category of error ... 17

Table 2.2 Example of direct and indirect speech ... 23

Table 2.3 List of reporting verbs ... 24

Table 2.4 Common expression of time in indirect speech ... 25

Table 4.1 description of students’ error in misformation ... 29

Table 4.2 description of students’ in omission... 33

Table 4.3 description of students’ in addition ... 34

Table 4.4 description of students’ in misordering ... 36

Table 4.5 the recapitulation of error types ... 37

Table 4.6 the recapitulation of causes ... 37

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CHAPTER I

INDRODUCTION

A. Background of Study

Grammar is one of the language components, which is taught to every

language learner. Ur says in A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and

Theory book ―Grammar is a set of rules that defines how words (parts of words)

are combined of changed to form acceptable units of meaning within a language.1

As Eugene states that Grammar is a description of certain organizing aspects of a

particular language. Besides grammar, there are other aspects it usually includes

phonological (sound), and morphological (word composition).2 It means that

grammar includes many aspects of linguistic knowledge; the sound system

(phonology), the system of meaning (semantic), the rule of word formation

(morphology), the rules of sentence formation (syntax) and the vocabulary.

Therefore, Grammar should be taught appropriately because it is the basic of the

language. Without knowledge of grammar, the learners will find many problems

to build up sentences and to express their ideas in communication among the

people.

Talking about grammar, reported speech of command is one of many

grammatical categories which is important to be learned by students. It should be

learned because it is one of three ways for students to report what other people

have said and thought to other people especially when they communicate each

other.

The students may commit errors because they set their minds that the target

language and their mother tongue are similar. In fact, they are totally different.

They often generalize the similarity between to language that is called

‘overgeneralization’. Corder in Masachika states that ―errors are evidence of the

1

Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory,(Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1996), p. 87

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leaner’s strategies of acquiring the language rather than the sign of inhibition of

interference from NL (Native Language) habits.‖3According to him, learners

when learning a foreign language essentially can do errors. It can happen naturally

because second language learners are actively engaged in figuring out the rules for

the language they are learning.

Based on the statements above, making error is acceptable. As Norrish

states, ―It is natural for students as human being to make errors.‖4

It means that

learners’ errors provide evidence to us that the teacher must have strategies and do

something to avoid students to make error again. The strategy that can prevent the

student from making error is error analysis. By using error analysis, the teacher

tries to identify, describe and explain the errors made by the students in the test. It

can help the teachers to minimize the students’ error in their learning. Realizing that error is inevitable in learning process, the teachers have to pay attention to

their students’ error. It will help them to avoid their students for making the same error by analyzing the students’ error itself.

According to the explanation above, the researcher understands the

important of doing an error analysis. Through error analysis, the most common

error that the students make can be identified and the sources of error can be

found. By knowing at least the common errors, the students are expected not to

commit the same error again in the future.

There are grammatical differences between Indonesia and English language.

That is why students often do mistake and error when they quote direct into

indirect/reported speech in English. For example, when the students want to report

somebody’s word, thoughts and ideas in Indonesian language, the grammatical

changes will not happen or they do not need to change the tense or pronoun like in

English languag8e. In this case, many students still have difficulties in using

reported speech of command. They state that they often do mistake whenthey

quote the direct into indirect form. Some students still confuse with certain

3

Masacika Ishida, Error Analysis and its Significance in Second Teaching: A Brief Survey of the Theorical Aspect of Error Analysis. 現代英米研究 , 1982, p. 12.

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grammatical changes that have to be made by them. Sometimes they feel hard to

decide what kind of tenses and pronoun that should be used when they quote the

word. It can be known that Indonesian language has not a grammatical form like

tenses and pronoun.

Therefore, in teaching and learning reported speech of command, errors

cannot be avoided. Error that the students made can be caused by learners’ native language or target language. Brown states that ―Error analysis is the fact that

learners do make errors and that these errors can be observed, analyzed, and

classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learner, led to a

surge of study of learner’s errors.‖5

It implies that error analysis is a procedure

including observing, analyzing and classifying the errors on the second language

rules and disclosing systems controlled by the learners. It is carried out to obtain

information for the teacher about the students’ error and the students’ mastery of

the material.

The problems that the students of X year of MA Ummurrodiyyah Tangerang

are usually found in reported speech of commandwas the students often felt bored

and didn’t have more motivation to memorize some vocabularies, rules of tenses,

etc. The problem of teaching grammar especially in reported speech of command

was the students confused to use the right vocabularies in tenses, they sometimes

forgot the rules. Most of them like listening skill because they like to listen

English songs. They said they didn’t understand well of direct speech because

they felt difficult to distinguish betweendirect and indirect speech.

Based on the description above, the researcher would like to conduct the

research on the students’ errors in using reported speech of command. The study

will be conducted in theX year students of MA Ummurrodiyyah Tangerang So,

the writer would like to discuss it in his ―skripsi” under the title: “An Error

Analysis of Using Reported Speech of Command”

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B. Formulation of the Problem

To make the study easy to understand, the researcher formulates the

problem as follows:

1. What kinds of errors made by theXyearof MA Ummurrodiyyah Tangerang in

learning reported speech of command?

2. Whatare the factors that caused students’ errors in using reported speech of

command?

C. Aim of the Research

The aim of the reseharch isto identify the students’ error in using reported

speech of command in the X years students ofMAUmmurrodiyyah Tangerang.

Besides, it is to know what factors that are causing the students’ errors in using

reported speech of command.

D. Significance of the Research

The result of the finding is expected to provide useful information about the

common mistekes made by students in learning grammar.For the English teacher,

by analyzing the common mistekes made by the students of MA ummurrodiyyah

Tangerang,she/hecans inprove the quality of her/his teaching strategies. Finally, it

makes the students easy in learning grammar. Moreover, for furter researcher, this

finding can be the basic consideration to enrich the further researcher’s knowledge

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. ERROR

1. The Undersatanding of Error

When students learn a target language, they usually make errors or

mistakes. It happens because sometimes the students interfered by their native

language. The different system of the second language and the first language leads

them to make the errors. However, it can be used to know the understanding of

the students about the rules or system of the language being learned.

Some experts give the understanding of error. According to Brown ―An

error is noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of native speaker, reflecting

the interlanguage competence of the learner.‖1 It means that an error is something

that can be seen; it shows the learner’s ability.

While Corder in Norrish states, ―Errors are the result of some failure of

performance.‖2

From the statement above; errors are caused by the incorrect form

on the learner’s work.

Hubbard, et.al. also have the same opinion with Corder. According to

them, ―Errors are caused by lack of knowledge about the target language (English) or by incorrect hypotheses about it.3 It means that errors can appear due to the

insufficient knowledge or the inappropriate rule about the language being learned.

Norrish has a broader definition than Brown. He states, ―let us call

systematic deviation, when a learner has not learnt anything and consistently ‘gets

it wrong’, it is an error.‖4

Norrish considers an error as something which comes up

because the learners do not comprehend something and always use the wrong one.

1

H.D Brown, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching, 5th edition (New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2007), 5th edition, p. 258

2

Carl James, Errors in Language Learning and Use, (New York: Addision Wesley Longman, Inc., 1998), p. 79.

3

Peter Hubbard, et al., A Training Course for TEFL, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), p. 134

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Susan and Larry give the similar opinion, they point out, ―it is likely to occur repeatedly and is not recognized by the learner as an error.‖5

They think an

error is something that happens regularly and the learners do not realize it.

James makes the development of the understanding of error. He states, ―If the

learner is unable or in any way disinclined to make the correction, we assume that

the form of the learner used was the one intended, and that is an error.‖6

It means

that the learner cannot give the right form because they think what they use is the

correct one.

From all the statements above, the writer summarizes that error is wrong

forms of language performance in students’ work which happens regularly when

they face the same thing. The students have the lack of knowledge of it because

they do not realize what they did is an error unless other people explain about it. It

makes them cannot correct that error by themselves.

2. Types of Error

Error can be classified into several types. Corder in Ellis distinguishes

three types of error according to their systematicity:

a. Pres-systematic errors occur when the learner is unaware of the existence of a particular rule in the target language. These are random.

b. Systematic errors occur when the learner has discovered a rule but it is the wrong one.

c. Post-systematic errors occur when the learner knows the correct target language rule but uses it inconsistently (i.e. makes a mistake).7

From Corder points of view, the writer assumes that these types of error made.

based on the sequences of time how learners learn the language is.

According to Dulay, in the book Language two, he classifies error into

four types; error based on linguistic category, error based on surface strategy

5

Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker, Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course,3rd edition (New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 102.

6

James, op.cit, 1998., p. 78.

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taxonomy, error based on comparative taxonomy, and error based on

communicative effect taxonomy.8

a. Error based on linguistic category

The linguistic category taxonomy classifies errors according to either or

both the language component and the particular linguistic constituent the error

affects. Language components include phonology (spelling), syntax and

morphology (grammar), semantic and lexicon (meaning and vocabulary),

discourse (style). Constituents include the elements that comprise each

language components. For example;

Morphology : A ant

Syntax : He no write

While in constituents, it includes the elements that comprise each

language components. For example within syntax, one may ask whether the

error is the main or subordinate clause, which constituent is affected.9

b. Error based on surface strategy taxonomy

This type of error which has four subtypes. They are;

1) Omission

It is an error which happens because a learner does not put the needed

morphemes in his/her sentence. The morphemes which disappear are from

the content morpheme and grammatical morpheme. For example in the

sentence;

Content morpheme : (Budi) is a (leader)

Grammatical morpheme : Budi (is) (a) leader.

2) Addition

This type of error is contradictive to the previous one. The character

of the error is known by the presence of an item, which must not appear in a

well-formed utterance. This error usually appears in the later stage of L2

8

Heidi Dullay, et al, Language Two, ( New York: Oxford University Press, 1982) pp. 146—189.

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acquisition, when the learner has already acquired some target language rule.

E.g., ―He doesn’t know my name.‖

3) Misformation

This error is characterized by the use of wrong form of the morpheme

or structure. In this error the learner supplies something although it is

incorrect. E.g., ―I see a teeth.‖

4) Misordering

The incorrect placement of a morpheme or a group of morpheme in

an utterance is the character of this error. E.g, ―I don’t know what that is.‖

c. Error based on comparative taxonomy

The classification is made based on the comparisons between the

structure of L2 errors and certain other types of construction. To this

classification of error, there are four types of error.

1) Development error

Development error is error similar to those made by children

learning the target language as their first language. E.g., ―Mary eat the pineapple.‖

2) Inter lingual error

Inter lingual error is an error similar in structure to a semantically

equivalent phrase or sentence in learner’s native language.

3) Ambiguous error

Ambiguous error is error that reflects the learner’s native language

structure. This error could be classified equally as development or

inter lingual error. E.g., ―I no go to school.‖ 4) Other error

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d. Error based on communicative effect taxonomy

Instead of focusing on aspect of the error themselves, the

communicative effect taxonomy concerned with the error from the perspective

of their effect on the listener or reader. The focuses are on distinguishing

errors that seem to cause miscommunication from those that do not. Error

based on communicative effect taxonomy is divided into two parts.

1) Global error

Global error hinders communication; it prevents the learners from

comprehending some aspects of messages. For instance, ―we amused that

movie very much.‖

2) Local error

Local error itself does not interfere with understanding of an

utterance, usually because there is only a minor violation of one segment

of a sentence. ―I angry‖ will be local error since the meaning is apparent.

According to Ellis in Corder, error fall into four categories, they are

omission of some required element; addition of some unnecessary or incorrect

element; selection of an incorrect element, and misordering of the elements.

Nevertheless, Corder himself adds that this classification is not enough to describe

errors. That is why includes the linguistics level of errors under the sub-areas of

morphology, syntax, and lexicon.10

Ellis maintains that ―classifying errors in these ways can help us to diagnose learners’ learning problems at any stage of their development and to plot how changes in error patterns occur overtime.‖ This categorization can be

exemplified as follows:

Omission:

Morphological omission * A strange thing happen to me yesterday

Syntactical omission * Must say also the names?

Addition:

In morphology * The books is here

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In syntax * The London

In lexicon * I stayed there during five years ago

Selection:

In morphology * My friend is oldest than me

In syntax * I want that he comes here.

Ordering:

In pronunciation * fignisicant for ‘significant’;*prulal for

‘prular’

In morphology * get upping for ‘getting up’

In syntax * he is a dear to me friend.11

As mentioned by some experts above, there are many types of error according

to them. The writer decides that the errors generally made by the students based on

Ellis’ classifications which are: omission, addition, selection and misordering.

3. Causes of Error

The types of error into tall four causes, they are:

a. Over-generalization

Over generalization is the use of previously learned rules in new situation.

Over generalization includes instance where the learner makes a rule on the

basis of his experience of other rule in the target language.

For example: Do you go to Bali last Year?

The correct one is: Did you go to Bali last year?

b. Ignorance of rule restriction

This type of errors is the result of the failure to observe the restrictions of

existing structure, that is, the application rules to context where they do not

apply.

For example: The man who I saw him yesterday is my teacher.

The correct one is: The man whom I saw yesterday is my teacher.

c. Incomplete application of rules

11_{Vecide Erdogan, ―Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language Teaching.‖}

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This error is the result of the learner’s high motivation to achieve

communicative ability. In achieving this, learner sometimes produces

grammatical incorrect sentence.

For example: She go to school every day

The correct one is: She goes to school every day.

d. False concept hypothesized

This error is the result of the faulty comprehension of distinction in the

foreign language, sometimes this error is because of the poor gradation of

materials of teaching.12

According to Brown there are four causes of errors, they are:

a. Interlingual Transfer

Interlingual transfer occurs because the interference of a mother tongue

into a target language. Interlingual transfer is significant source of error for all

learners. The beginning stage of learning a second language is especially

vulnerable to interlingual transfer from the native language.

For example:

- I miss he for I miss him

b. Intralingual Transfer

Intralingual transfer is a major factor in second language learning.

The early stage of language learning is characterized by a predominance of

interference (interlingual transfer), but once learners have begun to acquire

part of the new system, more intralingual transfer-generalization within the

target language is manifested. Negative intralingual transfer, or

overgeneralization has already been illustrated in such utterances as ―he good.‖

c. Context of Learning

Context refers to the classroom with its teacher and its material in

the case of school learning. In a classroom context, the teacher pr the textbook

can lead the learner to make faulty hypotheses about the language. Students

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Jack C Richards. Error Analysis Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition.

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often make errors because of a misleading from the teacher, faulty

presentation of a structure or word in textbook.

d. Communication of Strategies

Communication strategies were defined and related to learning

style. Learners obviously use production strategies in order to enhance getting

their message across but at times, these techniques can themselves become a

source of error. In other hand, Ellis mentions three sources of error which are

known by error of omission, overgeneralization error and transfer error.13

1) Error of Omission. For example, learners leave out the article ‘a’ and ‘the’

and leave the –s of plural nouns.

2) Overgeneralization Error. Learners overgeneralize forms that they find easy to

learn and process. (The learner processes new language data in his mind and

procedures rules for its production, based on the evidence). For example, the

use of ‘eated’ in place of ‘ate.’

3) Transfer Error; reflect learners’ attempts to make use of their L1 knowledge.14

While Hubbard proposed slightly different names;

a. A mother-tongue interference

Although young children appear to be able to learn a foreign language

quite easily and to reproduce new sound very effectively, older learners

experience considerable difficulty. The sound system (phonology) and the

grammar of the first language impose themselves on the new language and

this lead to ―foreign‖ pronunciation, faulty grammatical patterns and,

occasionally, to the wrong choice of vocabulary.

b. Overgeneralization

The mentalist theory claims that errors are inevitably because they

reflect various stages in the language development of the learner. It claims that

the learner process new language data in his mind and produces rules for its

13

H.D. Brown, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching, 5thEdition (New York: Person Education, Inc2007)., p. 223

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production, based on the evidence only partial, such us rules may produce

incorrect pattern.

c. Errors encouraged by teaching material or method

The teaching material or method can also contribute to the student’s

errors. Unfortunately, these errors are much more difficult to classify, as Pit

Corder admits this: ―… it is, however, not easy to identify such errors except

in conjunction with a close of the materials and teaching technique to which

the learner has been exposed. This is probably why so little is known about

them.‖15

The writer concludes that there are three sources of error according to

Hubbard et.al. They are mother-tongue interference which actually same with

the ―interlingual‖ term from Brown, overgeneralization which caused by the

insufficient knowledge of the learners about the rule of their target language,

andthe last source is errors encouraged by teaching material or method which

similar with what Brown named ―context of learning.‖

The writer summarizes what some experts have explained above. As a

whole, there are three main sources of errors. First, error happens because the

influence of the student’s mother language is called interlingual. Second, error happens because the target language itself is called intralingual. Third, error

happens because the influence of the process in teaching and learning when

the teachers explain the language.

4. Differences Between Mistake and Error

Learning a language is fundamentally process that involves making of

mistakes or errors. The mistakes include with vocabulary items, grammatical

pattern and sound patterns as well.

Based on Corder in Susan and Larry, ―mistakes are akin to slips of the

tongue. That is, they are to recognize it as mistake and correct it if necessary.

An error, on the other hand, is systematic. That is, it is likely to occur

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repeatedly and is not recognized by the learner as an error.‖16

It means that an

error is something that learner do not realize it and always occur, and mistake

is something that learner can correct it if needed because they know where the

wrong on their work is.

According to Hubbard et.al, ―Error caused by lack of knowledge about

the target language (English) or by incorrect hypotheses about it; and mistakes

caused by temporary lapses of memory, confusion, slip of the tongue and so

on.‖17

Based on the statements above, error can appear due to the insufficient

knowledge or the inappropriate rule about the language being learned; while

mistake happens because of the learner forget about the rule or their

carelessness when do the work.

Furthermore, Brown explains that; A mistake refers to performance

error that is either a random guess or a ―slip‖ in that it is a failure to utilize a knownsystem correctly. All people make mistakes, in both native and second

language situation. While error is a noticeable deviation from the adult

grammar of a native speaker, reflects the competence of the learner and an

error that reveals of a portion of the learner’s competence in the target

language.18

Corder made a distinction between a mistake and error. Whereas a

mistake is a random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc., and

therefore can be readily self-corrected, an error is systematic deviation made

by learners who have not yet mastered the rules of the L2. A learner cannot

self-correct an error because it is a product reflective of his or her current

stage of L2 development, or underlying competence.19

Fisiak distinguished between error and mistake as follows: ―mistakes

are deviations due to performance factors such as memory limitations (e.g.,

mistakes in the sequence of tenses and agreement in long sentences), spelling,

16

Gass and Selingker, loc.cit.

17

Hubbard, loc.cit.

18

Brown, op.cit, 2007, p. 257.

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pronunciations, fatigue, emotional strain, etc. errors, on the other hand, are

system a given stage of learning.‖20

According to the understanding of mistakes and error above, it can be

distinguished the difference between mistakes and errors. Mistakes are

unsystematic of production which the students could correct their own

mistakes if their attention in focus and they realize what mistakes that they

had done. In the opposite, students do not understand that they had done and

consistently do the same error. They find it so hard to correct the errors they

made. Furthermore, a mistake can be self-corrected by the students but an

error cannot be self corrected by the students.

B. Error Analysis

1. Understanding of error analysis

There are many understanding of error analysis that is suggested by

some experts. According to Gass and Selingker, ―Error analysis is a type of

linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make.‖21

It means that

error analysis is a kind of linguistic analysis that concentrates on the errors

made by learners.

Brown states that ―error analysis is the fact that learners do make

errors and that these errors can be observed, analyzed, and classified to reveal

something of the system operating within the learner, led to a surge of study of

learner’s errors.‖22

It implies that error analysis is a procedure including

observing, analyzing and classifying the errors on the second language rules

and disclosing systems controlled by the learners.

Meanwhile, according to James, ―error analysis is the process of

determining the incidence, nature, causes and consequences of unsuccessful

language.‖23

In other words, error analysis is the procedure to decide the

occurrence, nature, reasons and results of failed-learning of a language.

20

Jack Fisiak, Constractive Linguistics and the Language Teacher, (New Jersey: Prentice hall,Inc, 1987), p. 205.

21

Gass and Selingker, op.cit, 2008, p. 102

22

Brown, op,cit, 2007, p.259

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Based on some definitions above, it can be concluded that error

analysis is a type of analysis which includes the process of observing,

analyzing and classifying the errors on the second language rules and

disclosing systems controlled by the learners. It also can be said as way to

investigate the error made by students to get some important data about

students’ difficulty in learning a language. It is believed by knowing more

detail about problems faced by the students and solve it, the teacher will

improve their teaching to avoid their students in making the same error again.

2. The Procedure of Error Analysis

There are five steps in conducting an error analysis, they are:

1. Collecting of a sample of learner language

The type of data collected can have a marked effect on the result of an

error analysis, as a result of the different production processes which they

typically involve. For example, Logoco found differences in the number and

type of errors in samples of learner language collected by means of free

composition, translation, and picture composition.24

2. Identification of Errors

The definition of ‘error’ is problematic, as James admits. The difficulty

centers on a number of issues. The first is whether grammatically (i.e.

well-formedness) or acceptability should serve as criterion. An utterance may be

grammatically correct but pragmatically unacceptable. ‘I want to read tour

newspaper’ addressed a complete stranger is grammatical but pragmatically

unacceptable.25

3. Description of Errors

24

Rod Ellis, The Study of Second Language Acquisition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 46

25

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17

The description of errors involves a comparison of the learner’s

idiosyncratic utterance with a reconstruction of those utterances in the target

language or, more recently, with a baseline corpus of a native-speaker

language.26 Ellis also describes the category of errors as seen in the table

below:

Table 2.1

The Category of Error

Category Description Example

Omission

The absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance

The do dated the chicken

Misordering

The incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morpheme in an utterance

What daddy is doing?

4. Explanation of Errors

Explanation is concerned with establishing the source of the errors, i.e.

accounting for why it was made. This stage is the most important for SLA

research as it involves an attempt to establish the processes responsible for L2

acquisition.

5. Evaluating of Errors

Error evaluation involves a consideration of the effect that errors have

on the person (s) addressed. This effect can be gauged either the terms of the

addressee’s effective response to the errors. Error evaluation studies

proliferated in the late 1970s and in the 1980s, motivated quite explicitly by a

desire to improve language pedagogy.27

26

Ibid.

27

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3. Goals of error analysis

According to Gass and Selingker ―the goal of error analysis is clearly one of pedagogical remediation.‖28

It implies that the aim of analyzing error is

evidently educational remediation.

Norrish states that ―Error analysis can give a picture of the type of

difficulty learners are experiencing. If carried out on a large scale such a

survey, it can be helpful in drawing up a curriculum.‖29 It means that an error

analysis can give useful information about new class. In a class-or

country-with different first languages, it can indicate problems common to all and

problems to particular groups.

Whereas, Corder in Fisiak’s book makes two different purpose of error analysis: applied and theoretical purpose. The applied purpose of error

analysis is yields valuable insights into the nature of the intermediate

‘functional communicative systems’ or languages constructed by them.

Meanwhile, thetheoretical purpose of error analysis is to present insight into

process of acquiring learner’s language.30

The most typical use of the analysis of the error is the teachers. It is

designing pedagogical material and strategies. Dullay states that studying

students’ errors serves two major purposes:

a. It provides data from which inferences about the nature of the language

learning process can be made.

b. It indicates to teachers and curriculum developers which part of the target

language students have most difficulty producing correctly and which

errors types detract most from a learner’s ability to communicate

effectively.

According to Fisiak, there are four goals of error analysis, they are:

28

Gass and Selingker, op.cit 2008, p. 103.

29

Norrish, op.cit, 1998., p. 80.

30

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19

1. Determining the sequence of presentation of target item in text book and

classroom, with the difficult item following the easier one;

2. Deciding the relatives degree of emphasis, explanation and practice

require and putting across various items in the target language;

3. Devising remedial lesson and exercise;

4. Selecting items for testing the learners’ proficiency.

Shows that there are four goals of error analysis.

C. Grammar

1. Understanding of grammar

Penny Ur notes that ―Grammar is defined as words are put together to

make correct sentences it does not only affect how the units of words are

combined in order to make correct sentences but also affects their meaning.‖31

According to Thornburry ―Grammar is partly the study of what forms (or

structure) are possible in language. Traditionally, grammar has been

concerned almost exclusively with analysis at the level of the sentence formed

rules that govern how a language’s sentences are formed.‖32

In conclusion,

grammar is a field of linguistic that involves all the various things that make

up the rules of language.

2. Types of Grammar

Grammar may be separated into two common broad categories:

descriptive and prescriptive. Both views of grammar are in wide use, although

in general, linguists tend towards a descriptive approach to grammar, while

people are teaching a specific language; English, might tend towards a more

perspective approach.33

31

Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory, (London: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 75

32

Scott Thornburry, How to Teach Grammar, (London: Longman, 1999), p. 1.

33

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David Crystal lists six types of grammar: descriptive grammar,

pedagogical grammar, perspective grammar, reference grammar, theoretical

grammar, and traditional grammar.34

Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker state that there are four types of

grammar; perspective grammar is primarily interested in constructing rules of

usage for the prestige variety of a language, descriptive grammar is primarily

interested in describing the basic sentence patterns of all varieties of a

language. Then, generative grammar is primarily interested in discovering

those principles of sentence formation that are part of the human biological

endowment; performance grammar is primarily interested in the effects of

context and real-time limitations on language use.35

In the writer’s opinion, grammar can be divided into two main points; descriptive and perspective grammar that can be broken down again into

many different points with different point of views.

D. REPORTED SPEECH

1. The Definition of Reported Speech

Reported speech refers to reproducing the idea of anoher person’s

words. Not all of the exact words are used: verb forms and pronoun may

change.36

Thompson and Martinet stated in A Practical English Grammar, ―in

indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech, without

necessarily using the speaker’s exact words.‖37

Betty schrampfer azar stated in Understanding English Grammar,

―reported speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has

said.‖38

34

http://www.IIp.armstrong.edu/5800/types.html. 24 September 2014.

35

Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker, English Grammar: Perspective, Descriptive, Generative, Performance, (Boston: A Pearson Education Company, 1998), p. 3.

36

Betty Schrampfer Azar, Fundamentals of English Grammar, (London: Practice Hall, 1992), 2nd edition, p. 366

37

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21

Reported speech (also called indirect speech) is used to communicate

what someone else said, but without using exact words.

From some definitions above, it can be concluded that reported speech

is to qoute somebody’s idea or thoughts without exactly repeating the exact word produced by the speaker.

2. The kinds of Speech

There are two ways of realiting what a person has said: direct and

indirect.39

a. Direct Speech

Direct speech conveys exactly what someone has said.40 It is usually

found in conversations in book, in plays, and in quotations.41

Example:

She said, ―I want to go the market.‖

Quotation marks are used when we quote direct speech. Single

quotatin marks (―...‖) are more common in British English, and double qoutation marks (―...‖) in American English.42

In direct speech, usually the words qoute introduced by one the words

say or think. It is put before the quotation. In writing, quotation marks (―...‖ or ―...‖) are used. In litetary writing, a large number of other verbs are used (to

add variety and to give additional information); for example, ask, suggest,

recommend, remind, etc.

b. Indirect speech

It can be made a speaker’s words or thoughts part of his sentence using conjunction (e.g. that), and changing pronouns, tenses and other words where

38

Betty Schrampfer Azar, Fundamentals of English Grammar Edisi Inggris-Indonesia(Jakarta: Binarupa Aksara, 1993), 2ndedition, p. 275

39

Thompson, PracticalEnglish Grammar, p. 269

40

Martin Parrot, Grammar For English Language Teachers, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 217

41

Thompson, loc. Cit.

42

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necessary. This kind of structures called ‘indirect speech’ or ‘reported

speech’.43 Example:

She said that she wanted to go the market.

Commas are not put before that, what, where, etc in indirect speech

structure.

Example:

He explained that he never atc meat ____ (not) he explained, that he neveretc meat.

Reported speech is used when it is interested not in the words that

someone has chosen, but in the essential information they conveyed. It is often

used far fewer words to report this than were originally spoken. Reported

speech found in newspaper report, fiction, talking, or writing about

conversation, report articles or speeches that have been heard or read.44

When turning direct speech into indirect speech, some chenges are

usually necessary. The tenses, pronoun and other words may different from

the original sentence.45

If introductory verb which is introduced in indirect speech is a present,

present perfect tense, so if someone wants to report the direct speech into

indirect speech, the change of tenses will not happen. Or in the other word,

there is no change of tenses if someone reports form direct speech into indirect

speech.

Example: paul says, ―I’m tryingto get a taxi.‖

Paul says he is trying to get a taxi.

However, if the introductory verb is in he past tense, the tense of

indirect speech have then to be changed into corresponding past tense.46

Example:

43

Micheal Swam,Practical English Usage, (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 501

44

Martin Parrot, loc. Cit.

45

Micheal Swam, practical english usage, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1995), p. 501-502

46

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23

Table 2.3

The example of direct and indirect speech

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

He said, ―I’m waiting for

Ann‖

He said (that) he was waiting for Ann

―do you knowjhon?‖ He asked if/whether I knew jhon He said―I loveyou‖ He said he loved me

From some examples above it can be seen that, when transforms direct

speech into indirect speech, some changes are neede.

For example in the first statement:

Direct speech : he said, ―I’mwaitingfor Ann.‖ Indirect speech : he said that he was waiting for Ann

Tenses of the direct speech is present continuous tense, so when it is

transform into indirect speech, the tense of indirect speech is past continuous

tense. Pronounof/is changed into he.

Besides, from examples above, it also can be seen that teh most neutal

and most common verbs which are used to introduced what are reported are

say and tell, and choosing between these verbs often poses a problem to

learners.say is never followed by an indirect object (e.g. him, us, them, my

sister, etc) whereas it has to use an indirect object after tell. It is better to

choose to tellwhen to draw attention specifically to the person who is being

addressed.

Example: he said (that) he was ill. He told (thst) he was ill.

Here is a list of reporting verbs which can be used to report what

people say.47

47

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Table 2.3

The List of Reporting Verbs

Acknowledge

The following table is some expressions of time in indirect speech.48

48

A.J Thompson and A.V. Martinet, practical English Usage, (new York: oxford university press, 1986), 4th

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25

Table 1.1

The Common Expressions of Time in Indirect Speech

Direct Indirect

The following week/ year, etc

The previous week/ year, etc.

A yeare before/ the previous year

E. Transformational Rule from Direct Command into Indirect Command.

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the researcher limits the

problem only on the reported speech of command. It is used by people when

they want report something but he/she not listen what the first speaker ask.

Paul R. Kroeger State in Analyzing Grammar an Introduction,

command is that the hearer (or addressee) is being told to do something. This

means that an imperative verb will always have second person actors, which

(in most language) will be subject.49 The most common verbs for direct

command is said, soasked, and told for indirect command. Indirect command,

request, advice are usually expressed by a verb of command/request/advice +

object + infinitive. The following verbs can be used: advise, command, order,

remind, tell etc, for example he said," Get your coat, tom!” –He told tom to

get his coat. Negative commands, request etc. are usually reported by not + to

infinitive, for example “ don’t swim out too far, boy,”, I said–I told the boys

not to swim out too far.50

49

Paul R. Kroger, Analyzing Grammar an Introduction, (Cambridge University Press), P. 199

50

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As the researcher knows in the reported speech there are many kinds:

reported speech of statement, reported speech of question, and reported speech

of command, but from this research the researcher talking about reported

speech of command. And the reported speech of command has two sections:

1. Positive command

Dalam perintah positif kita tambahkan to di depan kalimat perintahnya, sebagai penghubung atara kalimat pengantar dan perintah yang di laporkan. Kalimat-kalimat pengantar dalam jenis ini ialah: to+infinitive, he asked me, he told me, for example: he asked me “open your book”- he asked me toopen my book

2. Negative command

Dalam perintah negative kita tambahkan not to di depan perintah yang di laporkan, for example: mary told john “don’t wait for me”– mary told me john not to wait for her.51

As it has explained before, there are two sections in reported speech of

command; there are positive command and negative command. All of these

commands mean the same thing, so we don’t need to report every word when

we tell another person about it. For positive command we simply use asked

me + to + infinitive, for example: she asked me to close the window, and for

negative command we simply use asked me + not + to + infinitive, for

example: she asked us not to be late.

51

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Research Design

The method of this research was qualitative. It is often related to the

calculation and analysis of the numerical data. Meanwhile, the design of this

research is a case study. The student were given essay test, the essay test is about

reported speech of command. Then the researcher analyzed students’ test through

classifying the errors based on Paul R. Kroeger’ classification; how to change

direct speech into indirect speech, and for causes of error the data was analyzed

based dullay,burt and kiparsky book to find the causes of error; mother tongue

interference, overgeneralization, and error encouraged by teaching material or

method. Then data was interpreted and concluded.

B. The Subject of Study

The subject of this study was the tenth grade students of MA

Ummurrodiyyah Tangerang. The researcher took one class. The total population is

15 students. Then he randomly selected the students and took 15 of them as the

subject of study.

C. The time and Place of the Study

This research had been carried out for 3 (three) months started from July up

to December 2014. The place was at grade the tenth class of MA

Ummurrodiyyah Tangerang, academic year 2014/2015.

D. The Research Methodology and Design

The method used in this research was qualitative method. The researcher

collected the data by doing library and field research. and also the researcher

described the students’ error in testing reported speech of command by using

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E. The Technique of Collecting Data

Technique of collecting data in this research is using qualitative descriptive,

and to get data for this paper, the researcher used English Writen Test, and

interview. The researcher gave the written test to get the data about the frequency

of the error in the transform or change of tense and pronoun in using reported

speech of command.

F. The Technique of Data Analysis

The technique of data analysis used by the researcher in this research was

descriptive qualitative analysis technique. In this technique he described the errors

made by the tenth year students of MA Ummurrodiyyah Tangerang, and describes

the causes of why the students make errors in learning reported speech of

command. There are some steps to analyze the errors:

The first step in the process of analysis was identification of errors, the

second step is the description of errors, the third step is explanation of errors, and

the last steps were correction of errors.

In the end, the researcher classified the errors. The technique focused on the

data of the errors ‘type based on the surface taxonomy theory (omission, addition,

double marking, over regularizing, over generalizing, and misordering).

Besides, to know the percentage of errors made by the students, the

researcher used formula:

�

P = Percentage

F = Frequency of error made

N = Number of sample which is observed1

1

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CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH FINDING

A. Data Description

In this section, the researcher analyzed each student’s error in using

reported speech of command from the test given. The test consists of 20 items of

sentence completion test which is focusing on reported speech of command.

To analyze the errors, he used types of error classification based on

surface strategy taxonomy (Dullay, Burt and Kiparsky), they are omission,

addition (double marking, over-regularization, simple eddition), misformation,

and misordering. After identifying error committed by student in the test of

reported speech of command, he found four types of errors; they are omission,

addition, and misformation, misordering and there are three sources as mother

tongue interference, overgeneralization, and error encouraged by teaching

material or method.

So the highest and the lowest rates of all error types made in using

reported speech of command, the researcher elaborate the frequency and the

percentage of the errors types. There are table 4.5 And 4.6 Showing types and

sources of error made by students in using reported speech of command, and table

showing the frequency and the percentage of the error types as follow:

Table 4.1

Description of Students’ Error in Misformation

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33

a) Misformation

All students made errors in misformation with total 120 errors or 58.83%.

It happened because students might face difficulties in forming verb, adverb and

pronoun.

First students committed errors such misformation of verb. For example *”He saidto you be careful on the way”. The students used saidfor indirect speech of command. In the reported speech of command shouldn’t be usesaidbut they must be useasked or told.

Then, misformation of pronoun, the students used the wrong form for pronoun. For example, “She told you to put your book on my desk”. In indirect

speech of command, the object of pronoun should be changed. So the sentence should be “She told you to put your book on herdesk”.

Also, the students used the wrong form for adverb “She asked Siti to come

here”. In indirect speech of command, the adverb of place or time should be changed. The sentence should be “She asked Siti to come there”.

Table 4.2

Description of Student’s Error in Omission

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35

b) Omission

There are 15 students made errors in omission with total error 42 or 20.59 %. Most of errors happened because the students haven’t understood yet about how to change direct into indirect speech of command, so there is omission of object. For example,*”she told ____ to come there”, there is omission of object /us/.It should be *” She told us to come there”, in this item, the first speaker said “Come here please!”, and when second speaker didn’t understand what the first speaker said, so he ask’” what did she said?”, then the third speaker answer “she told us to come there”.

Table 4.3

Description of Students’ Error in Addition

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book page

The researcher found 11 students made errors in addition with total 21 or

10.29 %.Most of them did errors in addition in using please.For examples, *”she

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37

Table 4.4

Description of Students’ Error in Misordering

No

Misordering He asked you

not to cheat

Misordering He asked me

not to leave

not to touch

not to sit on

this chair

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d) Misordering

The researcher found 9 students who made errors in misordering with total

21 or 10.29 %. Most of them did errors in the patter placement of indirect negative form.For example *”He asked you to not cheat anymore”. In this

example, the studentsfailed in the placementof to infinitiveto form negative form of reported speech of command. They must put the negative form “not”beforeto infinitive. The sentence should be “he asked you not tocheat anymore”.

Table 4.5

The Recapitulation of Error Types

No Error types Frequency of errors Percentage of errors

1 Misformation 120 58.83 %

2 Omission 42 20.59 %

3 Addition 21 10.29 %

4 Misordering 21 10.29 %

TOTAL 204 100 %

Form table above, it could be known the total frequencies of all errors

types made in using reported speech of command are 204 errors. The highest rate

of all error types in misformation with the total of errors is 120 or 58.83 %. Next,

there are 42 or 20.59 % errors in omission, and 21 or 10.29 % errors in addition,

and the last 21 or 10.29 % error in misordering. Then, the frequency and the

percentage error causes were causes described into table as follow:

Table 4.6

The Recapitulation of Error Causes

No Error causes Frequency of

causes

Percentage of causes

1 Overgeneralization 30 65.22 %

2 Error encourage by

teaching material or

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39

highest rate of all error causes is overgeneralization with total error causes is 30 or

65.22 %. Net , there are 9 or 19.56 % error causes in Error encourage by teaching

material or method, and 7 or 15.22 % error causes in mother tongue interference .

After finding the frequency and the percentage of error type and error causes, the writer recapitulated students’ error using reported speech of command. The following table briefly recapitulated the students’ error in using reported

speech of command.

Table 4.6

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The data in the table 4.6 showed that students of X grade of MA

Ummurrodiyah made error in four error types. They are omission, addition,

misformation and misordering. The total of all errors made in using reported

speech of command from 15 students is 204 errors. They are 42 errors in omission,

21 errors in addition, 120 errors in misformation, and 21 errors in misordering.

B. Data Analysis

After describing the error types and error causes into the table description

with its frequency and percentage, the researcher would like to analyze those error

types made by the students in using reported speech of command and their error

causes.

1. Causes of Students’ Errors

Besides discussed type of errors made by student in using reported speech

of command, the researcher also discussed causes of error which might cause the students’ errors in using reported speech. Here are the explanations of error causes as follow:

a. Overgeneralization

This is the highest error causes with the total frequency 30 or 65.22 %.

Referring to error identification, the researcher found some errors that considered

as overgeneralization, such “She told you not to write anything please” and “She told you to put your book on my desk” when the student acquired one

pattern, they will save that pattern on their mind. But, when they use the pattern

into new pattern which different with the previews pattern. So it causes errors

such the examples above. The students just knew that “please” in direct speech could be used or not, so they conclude that the rule also could be applied in

indirect speech.