Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue2.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f

Mic higan State Unive rs ity, Eas t Lans ing, Mic higan, USA

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Ste phe n S. Kaagan Le ade rship de ve lo pme nt: the he art o f the matte r Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 2 [1 9 9 8 ] 7 4 –8 1

look in g, t oo t h eor et ica l”(Coh en a n d Tich y, 1997), s ever a l lea d in g t h in k er s m a k e t h e ca s e t h a t or ga n iza t ion a l lea d er s t h em s elves sh ou ld t a k e r es p on s ib ilit y for d evelop in g lea d er s a t a ll levels in t h eir or ga n iza t ion s. In on e gr ou n d -b r ea k in g a p p r oa ch execu t ives t h em s elves for m u la t e t h eir ow n s t or ies a b ou t “id ea s, va lu es, ed ge a n d en er gy,” a n d t h ey sh a r e t h em w it h s u b or d in a t es in t h e fi r m . Dr aw n fr om t h eir ow n exp er ien ce, t h e st or ies b ecom e t h e p r in cip a l t ools for bu ild in g co-wor k er s’ lea d er s h ip s k ills a n d ca p a cit ies (Coh en a n d Tich y, 1997).

T h e m a t t er of w h o s h ou ld d o lea d er s h ip d evelop m en t h a s som e obv iou s a p p ea l in t h a t it id en t ifi es, a lb eit in n ocu ou s ly, h er oes a n d v illa in s a n d d es ign a t es ow n er s h ip r igh t s. T h er e is r ea lly n ot m u ch of su b s t a n ce t o t h e is su e it self, h ow ever. In m a n y, if n ot m os t in st a n ces, in d iv id u a ls of a s im ila r b a ck gr ou n d w in d u p w it h cen t r a l r oles a s t ea ch er s ; it ju s t s o h a p p en s t h a t t h ey a r e a t d iffer en t p oin t s in t h eir ca r eer s w h en t h ey a r e en ga ged a s s u ch .

A com m on scen a r io is t h e for m er execu t ive w h o b ecom es a con s u lt a n t a n d t h en a p a r t t im e p r ofes sor, b efor e t u r n in g in t o a n execu t ive a ga in , on ly t o clos e a ca r eer a s a p r ofes sor a n d / or con s u lt a n t . T h e ed ge t h a t a p r ofes -sor m igh t b r in g t o lea d er s h ip d evelop m en t , a s op p os ed t o a con su lt a n t or a n execu t ive, is solely on e of p er sp ect ive a n d b r ea d t h of u n d er s t a n d in g. T h ese a r e r ela t ed a s m u ch t o t h e r eq u is it es of w h a t sh ou ld b e d on e a n d h ow, a s t o w h o d oes it .

In t h e exa m p le cit ed a b ove Coh en a n d Tich y (1997) a s s er t a p r om in en t r ole for execu t ives in lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t , bu t it is t h eir ow n fr a m e, n ot t h e execu t ives ’, t h a t su p p lies d ir ec-t ion for ec-t h e p r ogr a m . So w h en a n a ly sec-t s offer a p r om in en t p os it ion t o t h e q u es t ion of w h o sh ou ld d o lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t , t h ey a r e r ea lly u s in g it a s a w ay of p r ovok in g q u es-t ion s a b ou es-t con es-t en es-t a n d m ees-t h od ology.

Secon d , w h en s h ou ld t h e t ea ch in g of lea d er -s h ip b e in -s h or t bu r -s t -s of t im e or d r aw n ou t over lon ger p er iod s ? H ow m u ch su st a in ed , con t in u ou s t im e sh ou ld b e a lloca t ed ? Sh ou ld t h e t im e a lloca t ed t o for m a l in st r u ct ion b e in t er s p er sed a m on g lon ger p er iod s of on -t h e-job exp er ien ce, w h et h er t h r ou gh or ga n ized p r a ct ice s es sion s or a p p r en t ices h ip s?

J u st a s t h e m a t t er of w h o ca n n ot b e se p a -r a t ed f-r om t h e q u es t ion of w h a t a n d h ow , n eit h er ca n t h e m a t t er of w h en . Tim e a n d t im in g a r e cr it ica l a d ju n ct s of con t en t a n d m et h od ology, b eca u se t h ey con n ect t o t h e q u es t ion of seq u en cin g a n d it s clos e p a r t n er, cu m u la t ive effect s. T h a t a p r oject gr ou p ca n

h a n d le w it h gr ea t fa cilit y a ch a r ged issu e in volv in g et h n ic d iffer en ces is m or e t h a n a m a t t er of good for t u n e. Su ch fa cilit y h a s r oot s in t h e gr ou p ’s p r ior lea r n in g. P er h a p s it w a s fos t er ed t h r ou gh a ser ies of s eem in gly in con -s eq u en t ia l, -set -u p exer ci-se-s exp er ien ced in t h e fi r s t w eek t h e gr ou p sp en t t oget h er (Ka a ga n , u n p u blish ed ).

Wit h m or e t im e, t h er e ca n b e gr ea t er im p a ct if t h e lea r n in g ch a llen ges a r e t h e r igh t on es a n d t h ey a r e or d er ed p r op er ly. In t er sp er sin g p er iod s of in st r u ct ion w it h p er iod s of p r a ct ice, st a ge-s et t in g a ct iv it y or ju st p la in fu n , m ay b e t h e b est u s e of ava ila ble t im e. Let t in g d is com fi t in g n ew id ea s set t le a n d t a k e h old in a r ea l wor k con t ext , a n d t h en la t er, in a m or e r em ot e en v ir on m en t , a sk in g p a r t icip a n t s t o r eexa m in e a n d r esh a p e t h eir t h in k in g in ligh t of r ecen t on -t h e-job exp er i-en ce m ay b e t h e m ost effect ive or d er in g of elem en t s.

A solid a n d en d u r in g com m it m en t t o colla b -or a t ion , f-or exa m p le, ca n n ot b e m old ed solely in t h e h ot h ou se set t in g of a t r a in in g cen t er, n or even in t h e m or e n a t u r a l m ilieu of t h e wor k p la ce it self. Ca r efu lly in t er w eav in g exp er ien ces in b ot h set t in gs over t im e m igh t p r od u ce t h e d esir ed effect s. T h e d et er m in a n t of w h en t o d o som et h in g is w h a t t o d o a n d h ow t o ca r r y it off.

T h ir d , w h ere s h ou ld lea d er s h ip d evelop -m en t a ct iv it ies t a k e p la ce; in a u n iver sit y cla ssr oom ? Or, in a r et r ea t cen t er off t h e wor k sit e? Or p er h a p s in sp ecia l t r a in in g fa cilit ies a t t h e wor k sit e? Or, in u n fa m ilia r w ild er n ess set t in gs, or even m or e r em ot e ven u es lik e sou p k it ch en s? Or, in t h e wor k set t in gs of ot h er or ga n iza t ion s d oin g t h e sa m e k in d of wor k a s t h ose u n d er goin g t r a in in g? Clea r ly t h e op t ion s a r e m or e d iver se t od ay t h a n t h ey h ave ever b een . Lea d er les s gr ou p s in a p lea sa n t r u r sa l set t in g, t esa m bu ild in g sa b osa r d r u b -b er r a ft s on a fa st -r u n n in g r iver, a n d ser v ice p r oject s in t h e u n d er gr ou n d h a u n t s of t h e h om eless in a la r ge cit y n ow com p lem en t exp er t lect u r es a n d Socr a t ic give-a n d -t a k e offer ed in a m p h it h ea t er -st y le cla ssr oom s of n ot ed bu sin ess s ch ools. Un d er sea or ou t er sp a ce m ay b e t h e on ly fr on t ier s left u n t a p p ed .

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r ela t es t o h ow b es t t o a ch ieve t h a t a im . T h e ou t b a ck ca n offer p a r t icip a n t s a ll t h e ed u ca -t ion a l a dva n -t a ges of con s id er a ble d is com for -t , ju st a s a lu s h r es or t ca n offer a ll t h e ed u ca -t ion a l a dva n -t a ges of com for -t . E i-t h er on e, or b ot h , cou ld b e ess en t ia l for lea r n in g, or con -ver sely, cou ld st a n d in t h e w ay of lea r n in g. It a ll d e p en d s on t h e ob ject ives ; a n d ob ject ives gover n con t en t a n d m et h od ology.

In cr ea s in gly, t h ose w h o t ea ch lea d er s h ip seek t o fi t p la ce t o p u r p ose, a n d in m a n y in st a n ces t o a lt er n a t e p la ces d e p en d in g on d iffer en t p u r p oses. In t e gr a t ed , t h r ee-w eek p r ogr a m s ca n t a k e p la ce in sever a l d iffer en t ven u es. T h ey m igh t b e gin w it h a s h or t st in t in t h e w ild er n ess, follow ed by cla s s r oom or r et r ea t cen t er sess ion s, a n d t h en in volve a m ove t o a n u r b a n sit e for s er v ice p r oject s. T h e cu r r en t lit er a t u r e on lea d er s h ip d evelop -m en t is in fa ct r e p let e w it h d escr ip t ion s of p r ogr a m s t h a t t a k e p la ce in m u lt ip le s it es. For exa m p le, Vicer e (1996) d es cr ib es t h r ee ver y d iffer en t ly con fi gu r ed p r ogr a m s – t h e Cen t er for Cr ea t ive Lea d er s h ip ’s Lea d er la b, AT&T’s Lea d er sh ip Develop m en t P r ogr a m a n d Ar a m a r k ’s E xecu t ive Lea d er s h ip In s t i-t u i-t e. E a ch offer s loca les i-t h a i-t p u r p or i-t ed ly com p lem en t t h e a im s t h ey a r e s eek in g t o a ch ieve.

Fou r t h , w h a t a n d h ow . T h e cen t r a l con cer n s for t h ose d es ign in g a n d d oin g lea d er -s h ip d evelop m en t a r e ob ject ive-s, con t en t a n d m et h od ology. T h ese t h r ee a r e t h e w ellsp r in gs of a p r ogr a m . T h ey d et er m in e t h e q u a lit y of t h e exp er ien ces p a r t icip a n t s h ave. Ult im a t ely t h e im p a ct on p a r t icip a n t s, in t er m s of w h a t t h ey d o in t h e wor k p la ce, s t em s fr om t h es e. If t h e w h a t a n d h ow a r e s olid , t h ey ca n a ct u a lly over com e d efi cien cies in t h e w h ere a n d w h en , a n d p er h a p s even t h e w h o. Bu t t h e r ever s e is n ot t h e ca s e.

F r om t h e p oin t of v iew of t h e p a r t icip a n t s, t h e p r in cip a l veh icles for lea d er sh ip d evelop -m en t , in t er -m s of con t en t a n d -m et h od ology, in clu d e t h e follow in g:

• lis t en in g t o a lect u r e;

• en ga gin g in d iscu ss ion w it h p eer s, a lon e or w it h coa ch es or con su lt a n t s;

• p u r su in g a for m a l d ia logu e (Boh m , 1992) w it h p eer s, s u p er v isor s, s u p er v isees or s om e com b in a t ion of t h ese;

• a n a ly zin g a ca s e s t u dy of a n ot h er or ga n iza -t ion ’s p r oblem s or of on e’s ow n ;

• goin g t h r ou gh a sh or t or lon g exp er ien ce w it h p eer s, s u p er v isor s, s u p er v isees, or s om e com b in a t ion of t h ese, a n d t h en d eb r iefi n g it . T h e sh a r ed exp er ien ce cou ld b e d r aw n fr om on e’s ow n wor k p la ce or s om eon e else’s. Or it cou ld b e con st r u ct ed

fr om n a t u r a l cir cu m s t a n ces, lik e t h e on es a w ild er n es s set t in g p r ov id es, or a r t ifi cia l on es, lik e t h os e con ju r ed in ga m es a n d sim u la t ion s;

• d iscu ssin g w it h a coa ch or m en t or a d esig-n a t ed p r oblem ; a esig-n d

• u n d er goin g a lea d er sh ip a ssess m en t , eit h er v ia a su r vey in st r u m en t or t h r ou gh exp er t ob ser va t ion of b eh av ior, exh ib it ed eit h er on -t h e-job or in a la b set t in g.

N a t u r a lly, a n y on e of t h ese exp er ien ces ca n t a k e on on e or m or e ch a r a ct er ist ics, d e p en d -in g on d esir ed con t en t sp ecifi ca t ion s. T h e m a t er ia l t h a t p a r t icip a n t s en ga ge w it h , for exa m p le, cou ld b e h igh ly t h eor et ica l or q u it e p r a ct ica l. At t h e s a m e t im e, it cou ld sp a n b ot h , by p r od d in g p a r t icip a n t s t o for m u la t e m en t a l m od els of t h e b eh av ior t h ey exh ib it on t h e job (Ar gy r is, 1992; Sen ge, 1993), or p r ov id -in g t h em w it h op en -en d ed op p or t u n it ies t o a ssess t h eir effect iven ess a s p r ofess ion a ls (Sch on , 1983). Alt er n a t ively, t h e m a t er ia l m igh t en cou r a ge p a r t icip a n t s t o gen er a t e, a n d t r y ou t , n ew id ea s a n d con ce p t s, or it cou ld focu s sp ecifi ca lly on p a st a ct ion s a n d t h e d et er m in a t ion of im m ed ia t e n ext st e p s in t h e wor k p la ce.

In a n ot h er vein a lt oget h er, som e of w h a t is p u t in fr on t of p a r t icip a n t s m igh t r ela t e t o t h eir p a r t icu la r wor k en v ir on m en t . Wh ile st ill r efl ect ive of r ea l wor ld ch a llen ges, t h e m a t er ia l cou ld in clu d e issu es a n d p r oblem s t h a t ob t a in in a w id e r a n ge of set t in gs. On t h e ot h er h a n d , it m igh t , on it s fa ce, h ave lit t le a p p a r en t r eleva n ce t o p a r t icu la r or ga n iza -t ion a l con -t ex-t s, or even -t o is su es or p r oblem s t h a t b r oa d ly d iver se p a r t icip a n t s see a s ger -m a n e t o t h eir wor k sit u a t ion s. In con t r a st , t h e con t en t cou ld b e t im eless a n d en d u r in g, r ela t in g t o h ow h u m a n b ein gs fa ce a va r iet y of ch a llen ges t h a t t r a n s cen d a n y or ga n iza -t ion a l m ilieu . Ta k in g a d iffer en -t p er sp ec-t ive a lt oget h er, it m igh t b e t ied t o t h is yea r ’s wor k p la n a n d h ave lit t le for es eea ble im p a ct b eyon d t h a t t im e fr a m e.

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From the literature, some

misleading assumptions

It ou gh t t o b e a bu n d a n t ly a p p a r en t , fr om t h e r en d er in g of op t ion s ju st offer ed , t h a t t h e con t en t a n d m et h od ology of lea d er s h ip d evel-op m en t com p r ise a d ee p a n d t h ick wood . T h is sh ou ld s er ve a s a m p le w a r n in g t o a ll w h o t h in k t h a t on e sh ou ld a ch ieve t h ou gh t fu ln es s t o t h e p oin t of r igor a n d ca r e t o t h e p oin t of com p a s s ion . Re gr et t a bly, con t en t a n d m et h od ology h ave n ot r eceived t h e ju d iciou s t r ea t m en t t h ey d es er ve. T h e con t em p or a r y lit er a t u r e on lea d er s h ip d evelop m en t – a s r e p r es en t ed in r ecen t is su es of Orga n iz a

tion a l Dyn a m ics, A cr oss th e B oa rd , T h e J ou r n a l of M a n a gem en t Dev elop m en t, T h e A d m in istra tiv e S cien ce Qu a r terly – b et r ay s a cover

a ge of t h es e cr it ica l d im en s ion s t h a t is s u p er -fi cia l a t b es t .

T h is su p er fi cia lit y is m ost a p p a r en t in t h e a s s u m p t ion s m a d e a b ou t t h e m os t a p p r op r i-a t e m ei-a n s of d evelop in g lei-a d er s h ip ci-a p i-a cit y. Con veyed a s if t h ey w er e given s offer in g ess en t ia l gu id a n ce for p r ogr a m d evelop m en t , t h es e a s s u m p t ion s in clu d e t h e follow in g: • Is su es a n d p r oblem s d r aw n fr om t h e wor k

p la ce of t h e p a r t icip a n t s p r ov id e t h e m os t fr u it fu l lea r n in g ch a llen ges for con t em p o-r a o-r y lea d eo-r sh ip d evelop m en t .

• E xp er ien t ia l lea r n in g a ct iv it ies, or ga n ized in on e for m or a n ot h er ou t sid e t r a d it ion a l in s t r u ct ion a l set t in gs, a r e gen er a lly b et t er t h a n lea r n in g a ct iv it ies t h a t a r e cla s s r oom -b a sed .

• A h igh ly d iver s e p r ogr a m t h a t in clu d es a m a r k et b a s k et of m et h od ologies is gen er -a lly s u p er ior t o -a n -a p p r o-a ch t h -a t is on e-d im en s ion a l.

• T h e w h o, w h en a n d w h ere of p r ogr a m d evel-op m en t d eser ve t h e s a m e level of a t t en t ion a s t h e w h a t a n d h ow .

T h e p r oblem w it h t h ese a ss u m p t ion s is n ot t h a t a r e fl a t ly fa ls e. Qu it e t h e con t r a r y, t h er e is a good d ea l of va lid it y in t h em . T h eir p r in -cip a l d efect is t h a t t h ey a r e m is lea d in g: t h ey d o n ot p oin t t h e w ay t o t h e m os t a r t fu l a n d cos t effect ive lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t t r ea t -m en t s. T h e fi r s t a ss u -m p t ion is t h a t t h e -m ost fi t t in g m a t er ia l for lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t is t h e p r oblem s a n d is su es t h a t d om in a t e in t h e wor k p la ce of t h e p a r t icip a n t s. Ra t h er t h a n in va lid a t in g t h e a ss u m p t ion ou t r igh t , it is fi t t in g t o offer t h e s im p le r ejoin d er, d r aw n fr om t en et s of good t ea ch in g, t h a t p a r t ici-p a n t s in lea d er sh iici-p d eveloici-p m en t ici-p r ogr a m s s h ou ld s p en d a s m u ch t im e aw ay fr om wor k -p la ce -p r oblem s a n d is su es a s t h ey d o in t h eir m id st . T h ey cou ld b en efi t eq u a lly fr om

gr a p p lin g w it h u n fa m ilia r cir cu m st a n ces a s fr om d ea lin g w it h fa m ilia r on es. Ass u r ed ly, t h e u n fa m ilia r s h ou ld con t a in elem en t s r em i-n iscei-n t ei-n ou gh t o t ou ch r esp oi-n sive ch or d s ii-n t h e p a r t icip a n t s. At t h e sa m e t im e, it s d iffer -en ces sh ou ld a id p a r t icip a n t s in over com in g dy sfu n ct ion a l p a t t er n s t h a t p la gu e t h em in t h e wor k p la ce.

It m igh t seem t h a t t h e secon d a ssu m p t ion , t h e d esir a b ilit y of exp er ien t ia l lea r n in g aw ay fr om a cla ss r oom -t y p e set t in g, is t h e cou n t er t o m a n y of t h e d ow n sid es st em m in g fr om t h e fi r s t . Un for t u n a t ely, a s t h e lit er a t u r e it self d em on st r a t es, t h is is n ot t h e ca se. E xp er ien -t ia l in m os-t in s-t a n ces in -t h e li-t er a -t u r e m ea n s “exot ic”, a set of exp er ien ces con d u ct ed off-sit e, fr om w h ich p a r t icip a n t s a r e su p p osed t o glea n im p or t a n t lesson s t h ey ca n t h en b r in g b a ck t o t h eir wor k p la ce. In es sen ce, w h a t is offer ed a s exp er ien t ia l is t h e exp er ien ce in a n d of it self, u su a lly a n a ct iv it y in volv in g h igh in t en sit y a n d h igh cost . A w eek a t a n ou t w a r d b ou n d p r ogr a m for 20 t op m a n a ger s is a fi t t in g exa m p le.

T h e n u b of t h e p r oblem w it h p r ogr a m d eci-sion s p r ed ica t ed on t h e secon d a ss u m p t ion is t h ey a r e a n “exp en s ive h a lf loa f,” n ot m u ch b et t er t h a n “n o loa f a t a ll.” Wh er ea s p a r t icip a n t exicip er ien ce is cer t a in ly cen t r a l t o lea d er -sh ip d evelop m en t , it m u st con t a in n ot on ly a set of a ct iv it ies bu t a lso a n effect ive m ea n s of d ist illin g t h e lea r n in g t h a t t h e a ct iv it ies p r om ot e. T h e on ly w ay t h is ca n h a p p en is if a n a ble t ea ch er a s sist s p a r t icip a n t s w it h con ce p t for m a t ion a n d p ossible a p p lica t ion t o t h eir wor k p la ce. Well-fa cilit a t ed d iscu ssion is cen t r a l t o a n exp er ien ce, n ot s u p p lem en -t a r y. I-t ca p -t u r es -t h e lea r n in g a n d m a k es a p p r op r ia t e con n ect ion s w it h t h e wor k p la ce (Ka a ga n , u n p u blish ed ).

As im p or t a n t , exp er ien t ia l d oes n ot h ave t o m ea n ext r em e, r em ot e a n d cost ly. It ca n m ea n m ild , p r oxim a t e a n d in exp en sive. Low in t en -sit y exp er ien ces p r ov id ed p a r t icip a n t s w it h in t h e fou r w a lls of a cla ss r oom ca n lea d t o v ig-or ou s d iscu s sion s, w it h gr ea t p ot en t ia l fig-or lea d er sh ip lea r n in g. It is oft en u n n ecessa r y t o t a k e a gr ou p aw ay for a n in t en s ive, w eek -lon g t r a in in g ses sion in t h e w ild er n ess. Wit h a gr ou p t h a t is r ea dy, sever a l h ou r s of a ct ive en ga gem en t w it h a w ell-ch osen exer cise in a n a m p le-sized r oom ca n p r od u ce m a r k ed effect s.

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b e t h e r igh t m ix t o cr ea t e im p a ct . T h e ot h er sid e of t h e coin is t h a t su ch p r ogr a m s m ay b e over d on e, fu ll of cos t ly m oves t h a t a r e n ot n eces s a r y for t h e a ch ievem en t of a sp ecifi c set of ob ject ives. Mu ch p r efer r ed a r e exq u isit ely d iffer en t ia t ed ob ject ives, clea r ly a r t icu la t ed a t t h e ou t s et , w it h t a r get ed r es p on s es by w ay of p r op osed a ct iv it ies. To d o t h in gs t h is w ay, h a r d -n os ed d esign wor k is ess en t ia l, w it h it s p r im a r y focu s t h e con t en t a n d m et h od ology of a p r ogr a m , t ied ver y clea n ly t o a s et of exp licit p u r p oses.

I h ave a lr ea dy exp la in ed in fu ll a b ove w h y t h e fou r t h a s s u m p t ion m is lea d s – t h a t is, p u t t in g t h e w h o, w h ere a n d w h en on a p a r w it h t h e w h a t a n d h ow . It is im p or t a n t , h ow -ever, t o a d d h er e t h a t d ir ect in g t h e eye aw ay fr om con t en t a n d m et h od ology in cr ea ses t h e p os s ib ilit y t h a t t h ey w ill r em a in u n d er exa m -in ed . If t h e a t t en t ion is d is p er sed , t h en t h e a m ou n t of in q u ir y d ir ect ed a t a n y on e ele-m en t w ill lik ely b e in su fficien t . T h is is t h e ca s e w it h t h e p r esen t st a t e of t h e lit er a t u r e on lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t .

Unfortunate consequences of

being misled

Un for t u n a t e con seq u en ces a ccom p a n y a ct ion s b a s ed on t h e fou r a ss u m p t ion s. Top -p in g t h e lis t , -p r ogr a m q u a lit y h a s s u ffer ed , a n d t h e cost s of p u t t in g lea d er s h ip d evelop -m en t p r ogr a -m s on h ave b eco-m e n eed less ly exor b it a n t . Loss of q u a lit y is t h e r es u lt of n ot t y in g a ct iv it y t igh t ly t o p u r p ose. F in e-gr a in ed d ecis ion m a k in g a b ou t t h e lea s t exp en sive yet m os t effect ive m ea n s t o a n en d is n ot occu r r in g. E xces s is t h e r es u lt of m a k in g lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t p r ogr a m s in t o con glom er a -t ion s of w h a -ts a n d h ow s, -t h e -t o-t a l cos -t of w h ich is fr eq u en t ly u n ju st ifi a ble.

In s t a r k con t r a st , s t r on g cu m u la t ive im p a ct on p a r t icip a n t s ca n b e a ch ieved if t h er e a r e t h e follow in g p r esen t : ca r efu l a t t en t ion p a id t o t h e ch oice a n d seq u en cin g of p r ogr a m elem en t s ; a n u n d er st a n d in g exh ib it ed of p a r t icip a n t s’ n eed s for t r y in g ou t n ew id ea s on sa fe gr ou n d , aw ay fr om t h eir wor k p la ce; a r igh t b a la n ce st r u ck b et w een w r es t lin g w it h id ea s on a n in d iv id u a l b a sis a s op p osed t o a gr ou p b a s is ; a n d p a t ien ce s h ow n in t er m s of b r in gin g t h e is s u es b a ck h om e t o t h e wor k -p la ce. F a ilu r e t o m a k e t h e r igh t m oves a n d t o effect t h e r igh t or d er of m oves in ev it a b ly lea d s t o r ed u n d a n cies a n d t o t h e n eed less exp en d it u r e of r esou r ces.

T h e d em a n d for b et t er lea d er s a n d con s e-q u en t ly for m or e exp a n s ive lea d er sh ip d evel-op m en t effor t s is st r on g a n d lik ely t o b ecom e

st r on ger in t h e yea r s a h ea d . In t h is a cceler a t -in g r u sh t o cr ea t e n ew a n d b et t er p r ogr a m s, m a n y lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t sp on sor s h ave let t h eir a p p et it es for gr a n d ios it y over t a k e t h eir p en ch a n t for good ju d gm en t . Lost is d efer en ce t o t h e p r in cip le t h a t w ell-cr a ft ed , m od est in t er ven t ion s t a r get ed t o a ch iev a b le en d s, a n d t ied t o b r oa d er, lon g-r a n ge a im s, m ay in t h e en d p r od u ce m or e p r ofou n d ly p osit ive a n d en d u r in g effect s.

Wh a t is n eed ed is a gr ou n d ed p r esen t a t ion t h a t t ies a ct iv it ies t o ob ject ives, t h a t is exp licit a b ou t ob ject ives, con t en t a n d m et h od -ology, t h a t offer s solid su b st a n ce for lea d er s, t r a in er s a n d ot h er s w h o t ea ch lea d er sh ip. T h e over a r ch in g goa l s h ou ld b e t o p r eser ve a n d ext en d t h e a dva n cem en t s con t a in ed in t h e p r esen t s et of in it ia t ives, w h ile s et t in g a sid e t h e fl u ff. In ev it a b ly t h e b lu sh w ill com e off t h e r ose of lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t in it s cu r r en t for m s, a n d or ga n iza t ion a l lea d er s w ill seek ou t m or e r efi n ed a n d econ om ica l a p p r oa ch es, d ecr y in g t h e exces ses of t h e cu r r en t a r r ay.

A wiser path

As on e look s t o t h e h or izon of lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t p r ogr a m m in g, h er e a r e p u r -p oses t h a t sh ou ld b e a ccor d ed h igh -p r ior it y. Wh ile d ist illed in t o a few p a ges, t h ey u n d er -gir d a n a p p r oa ch t o lea d er s h ip d evelop m en t t h a t sever a l lea d in g t h in k er s b elieve com es close t o t h e h ea r t of t h e m a t t er (Bolm a n a n d Dea l, 1994; Cla r k e a n d Cla r k e, 1994).

T h e p r im a r y “t ext ” w h ich p a r t icip a n t s sh ou ld in vest in is sh a r ed exp er ien ce – p ossi-bly, a set of gr ou p exer cises bu ilt of a r t ifi cia l cir cu m st a n ces a n d con d it ion s. N eed less t o say, t h is sor t of t ext is ver y d iffer en t fr om t h a t w h ich is p u r ch a sed in a b ook st or e, a p a ck a ge of id ea s con t a in ed b et w een t wo cover s. E xp e-r ien ce is e-r aw a n d im m ed ia t e, m essy a n d op en -en d ed . As su ch , it p la ces u n u su a l d em a n d s on a ll w h o seek t o u s e it for lea r n in g a n d fu r t h er p r ofession a l d evelop m en t . Yet , w h en a p p r op r ia t ely fa cilit a t ed , it s p ot en t ia l a s a lea r n in g t ool is lim it less.

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w e in q u ir e t oget h er in t o t h e m ea n in g of ou r exp er ien ces. In fa ct , it is wor t h r eca llin g t h a t exp er t com m en t a r y is n ot h in g m or e t h a n t h e ou t com e of exp er t s ca r efu lly r efl ect in g on t h eir ow n exp er ien ces.

M a k e n o m ist a k e, t h e “b r id gin g lea p ” a s k ed of lea r n er s h er e is en or m ou s. F r om dw ellin g w it h a t ea ch er a n d w it h ea ch ot h er on t h eir exp er ien ces t o for m in g a n d a t t a ch in g t h em -selves t o n ew con ce p t s of lea d er s h ip a n d m a n a gem en t t h a t t h ey ca n b r in g in t o t h eir wor k p la ce – t h is in volves con s id er a ble r ea ch a n d s t r a in . Yet on e ca n b e a s s u r ed t h a t if t h ey b ecom e em ot ion a lly en ga ged – d is com fi t ed or sa t isfi ed , p lea sed or con cer n ed , a git a t ed or com p os ed – b eca u s e of w h a t is h a p p en in g a r ou n d a n d t o t h em ; if t h eir a t t it u d es a n d t h os e of t h eir p eer s ca n r em a in u n fr ozen , even if m om en t a r ily ; a n d if t h ey b e gin t o m a k e in it ia l con n ect ion s b et w een t h eir ow n exp er ien ce in a n exer cis e a n d n ew id ea s a b ou t w h a t m igh t m a k e s en se t o d o a t wor k , t h e p os it ive im p a ct on t h em w ill b e s ign ifi -ca n t a n d en d u r in g.

T h e r ea dy or d er t h a t em er ges fr om a n in st r u ct or exp ou n d in g a s p ecifi c id ea or s et of id ea s is n ot p r es en t in t h e a p p r oa ch ju st d escr ib ed . T h er efor e, focu s is m or e d ifficu lt t o a t t a in . Bu t if a t t a in ed , a lb eit u n even ly, t h r ou gh em ot ion -fi lled a n d va lu e-la d en d ir ect exp er ien ce, t h e h old of t h e n ew id ea s on p a r t icip a n t s w ill b e m u ch m or e s ecu r e (P r ou d -m a n , 1992). T h e b r ick s, i.e. good id ea s, w ill n ot on ly b e in p la ce, bu t t h ey w ill b e secu r ed w it h a m p le m or t a r, i.e. a ccom p a n y in g feel-in gs a n d a t t it u d es.

Con t r a s t t h e a p p r oa ch ju st d es cr ib ed , for exa m p le, w it h “r eceiv in g t h e wor d ” fr om n ot ed exp er t s, in p er s on , on a b ig s cr een , or v ia t h e w r it t en wor d . Wh ile exp er t op in ion , h ow ever con veyed , is t a r get ed a n d lu cid , it is les s lik ely t o p r om ot e a lt er ed p r a ct ices. H ow -ever cogen t it m igh t b e, it is in ev it a bly s t er ile in t h a t it is d et a ch ed fr om t h e lives of t h e p a r t icip a n t s.

The roots of experiential learning In la b or in g in t h ese fi eld s w e sh ou ld b e a cu t ely aw a r e of b or r ow in g t h e id ea s of ot h er s. For em ost is J oh n Dew ey w h ose E d u

-ca tion a n d E x p er ien ce is s em in a l. Offer ed fi r s t

a s a lect u r e t o a p r ofes sion a l s ociet y in 1938, it set t h e s t a ge for m os t of t h e exp er t com m en -t a r y on exp er ien -t ia l lea r n in g -t h a -t follow ed . To Dew ey (1938):

ever y exp er ien ce en a ct ed a n d u n d er gon e, m od ifi es t h e on e w h o a ct s a n d u n d er goes, w h ile t h is m od ifi ca t ion a ffect s, w h et h er w e w ish it or n ot , t h e q u a lit y of su b seq u en t exp er ien ces.

H e goes on t o offer t wo in t er r ela t ed p r in cip les, or cr it er ia , of excip er ien ce t h a t len d t h em -selves w ell t o a n yon e w h o w a n t s t o ca p it a lize on exp er ien ce for lea r n in g. T h e fi r st is con t i-n u it y, t h e secoi-n d ii-n t er a ct ioi-n . T h e id ea of con t in u it y is t h a t exp er ien ces bu ild on ea ch ot h er. “E ver y exp er ien ce is a m ov in g for ce. It s va lu e ca n b e ju d ged on ly on t h e gr ou n d of w h a t it m oves t ow a r d a n d in t o” (Dew ey, 1938). T h e id ea of in t er a ct ion is t h a t exp er ien ce in volves a p er s on w it h w h a t is a r ou n d h im . “An exp er ien ce is a lw ay s w h a t it is b eca u se of a t r a n sa ct ion t a k in g p la ce b et w een a n in d i-v id u a l a n d h is en i-v ir on m en t ” (Dew ey, 1938), w h et h er ot h er p eop le, a n is su e, a b ook or w h a t ever con s t it u t es t h a t en v ir on m en t .

Wit h in t h e fr a m e of t h es e t r a n sa ct ion s t h e r ich d r a m a of h u m a n im p u lses, n eed s a n d d es ir es u n fold s, a n d fr om t h em p eop le seek a sen se of p u r p ose a n d m ea n in g. N ot es Dew ey, h u m a n s a r e by n a t u r e n ot sa t is fi ed w it h m er ely ob ser v in g exp er ien ce. T h eir im p u lses, n eed s a n d d esir es com p el t h em t o u n d er st a n d it s sign ifi ca n ce, a n d u lt im a t ely t o p u sh t h em t ow a r d a s en se of p u r p ose.

A p u r p ose is a n en d -v iew.

T h e for m a t ion of p u r p os es … in volves (1) ob ser va t ion of su r r ou n d in g con d it ion s ; (2) k n ow led ge of w h a t h a s h a p p en ed in sim i-la r sit u a t ion s in t h e p a s t … a n d

(3) ju d gm en t w h ich p u t s t oget h er w h a t is ob ser ved a n d w h a t is r eca lled t o s ee w h a t t h ey sign ify (Dew ey, 1938).

T h e p r in cip les of con t in u it y a n d in t er a ct ion in exp er ien ce a n d t h e in ev it a ble m a r ch t o a sen se of p u r p ose a r e cen t r a l t o t h e dy n a m ics t h ou gh t fu l ed u ca t or s s h ou ld seek t o cr ea t e in t h e sp a ce ch os en for lea d er s h ip lea r n in g, b e it a m eet in g r oom of a h ot el, t h e s p a ciou s law n of a n ea r by p a r k or a n a ca d em ic cla ssr oom . T h ese sp a ces a r e q u it e a m p le for com m on exp er ien ces, in t h e for m of gr ou p exer cises, sim u la t ion s or p r oblem s. Sp ecia lly d esign ed a n d con st r u ct ed , t h ey a r e m ea n t t o p ose sig-n ifi ca sig-n t lea d er sh ip q u a sig-n d a r ies. Cosig-n t r a r y t o w h a t m a n y m igh t say, t h ey a r e n ot “fa k e” or “u n r ea l” exp er ien ces. As “a r ose is a r ose,” a n exp er ien ce is a n exp er ien ce, w h et h er it occu r s in a n office, on t h e w ay h om e fr om wor k , or in a cla ssr oom or t r a in in g cen t er.

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st a k e. In effect , t h ey t a k e p la ce on “s a fe gr ou n d ”, oft en es sen t ia l for p eop le t o op en t h em s elves t o lea r n in g.

In h is la n d m a r k wor k , T h e R efl ectiv e Pra

ctition er , Sch on (1983) offer s s t r on g s u b st a n t ia

-t ion of -t h e n eed for “s a fe gr ou n d ,” esp ecia lly w h en im p or t a n t lea d er s h ip ca p a cit ies lik e r isk t a k in g a n d colla b or a t ion a r e a t st a k e. Sch on a r gu es for t h e exp a n d ed exer cis e of w h a t h e ca lls r efl ect ion in a ct ion by p r ofes -sion a ls. T h is ca p a cit y goes b eyon d t ech n ica l exp er t is e, in v it in g a p r ofes sion a l t o r es p on d t o u n cer t a in a n d com p lex cir cu m st a n ces by su r fa cin g k ey op er a t in g a s su m p t ion s a n d a n a ly zin g t h em even in t h e m id d le of on goin g wor k .

F r om on e of t h e ca s es h e p r es en t s, Sch on (1983) con clu d es t h a t “t h e r efl ect ion -in -a ct ion of m a n a ger s is d ist in ct ive in t h a t t h ey op er a t e in a n or ga n iza t ion a l con t ext a n d d ea l w it h or ga n iza t ion a l p h en om en a ” w h ich in volve “a sy s t em of ga m es a n d n or m s w h ich b ot h gu id e a n d lim it t h e d ir ect ion s of or ga n iza t ion a l in q u ir y ”. In sit u a t ion s w h er e m a n a ger s m u st t a k e cer t a in a ct ion s t o p r es er ve t h eir p osit ion a n d im a ge, t h es e ga m es a n d n or m s b ecom e “d is ea s es t h a t p r even t t h eir ow n cu r e” (Sch on , 1983). T h e effect s on or ga n iza t ion a l p er for m a n ce a r e in ev it a b ly n e ga t ive.

Sch on ’s a ccou n t b eck on s t h e cr ea t ion of cir cu m s t a n ces in w h ich p eop le w h o a sp ir e t o lea d er sh ip a r e com p elled t o t a k e a la r ger v iew, t o look m or e a t t h e b ig p ict u r e a n d a t u n d er ly in g a ss u m p t ion s d r iv in g a ct ion s a n d r ea ct ion s, in a set t in g r em oved fr om t h e d is -a blin g g-a m es -a n d n or m s of t h e or g-a n iz-a t ion s in w h ich t h ey wor k . Su ch con d it ion s p r ov id e p a r t icip a n t s a n ecess a r y op p or t u n it y t o wor k t h r ou gh t h e m u lt ip le, in t er t w in ed ob s er va -t ion s of exp er ien -t ia l p h en om en a .

T h e in t en t is t o a dva n ce t h e level a n d q u a l-it y of t h os e ob s er va t ion s t o t h e p oin t w h er e p a r t icip a n t s b e gin t o en ga ge in s er iou s “r efl ect ion -in -a ct ion ,” a n d u lt im a t ely in t h e for m a t ion of n ew con ce p t s. T h e wor k t h a t fa cilit a t or a n d p a r t icip a n t s d o t oget h er in t h is con t ext b ecom es a n exer cis e in “h y p er ob ser va t ion ,” lea d in g t o a n a n a ly sis of wor k -in g a s su m p t ion s (t h eor ies--in -a ct ion ), a n d t o a r efr a m in g of op er a t in g p r in cip les, gr ou n d r u les t h a t gover n fu t u r e a ct ion . It is a xiom a t ic t h a t su ch a p r ogr es s ion ca n n ot t a k e p la ce w it h in t h e con fi n es of a n or ga n iza t ion ’s wor k sp a ce. T h e fr es h a ir of exp er ien -t ia l exer cis es con d u c-t ed off -t h e wor k si-t e offer s a n efficien t w ay of s u r fa cin g wor k in g a s su m p t ion s for ser iou s r ev iew a n d r ev is ion .

E n d em ic t o effect ive in t er a ct ion w it h p a r -t icip a n -t s in -t h e exer cis es is d r aw in g -t h em u p

sh or t , in t o a n a n a ly sis of “w h a t h a s ju st t a k en p la ce in t h is r oom .” T h e sit u a t ion t h a t h a s ju st a r isen is h eld u p a s a m a n ifest a t ion of a n issu e or p r oblem t h a t h a s t o b e d ea lt w it h ou t sid e t h is r oom , in t h e r ea l wor ld . To r e p ea t a n ea r lier con t en t ion , t h e exp er ien ce p a r t ici-p a n t s a n d t ea ch er a r e h av in g in t h e exer cise a n d d iscu ssion follow in g is n ot a r t ifi cia l; it is a s r ea l a s t h a t w h ich occu r s els ew h er e.

T h is is p a r t icu la r ly t r u e of a t op ic lik e lea d -er sh ip, a t t h e v-er y h ea r t of w h ich a r e socia l in t er a ct ion , d efi n it ion of p u r p ose, a ccom -p lish m en t of t a s k a n d eva lu a t ion of r esu lt s. Su ch in gr ed ien t s a r e a s m u ch in ev id en ce in t h e r oom p a r t icip a n t s a r e m eet in g in a s in t h eir wor k p la ces. T h er e m ay, in a ct u a lit y, b e m or e p ot en t ia l for s olid lea r n in g fr om t h e “h er e-a n d -n ow,” in con t r a st t o t h e “h om e b a se,” r em ot e a s t h e la t t er is in t h e h ea t of t h e m om en t .

Conclusion

T h is a r t icle focu ses on essen t ia l a sp ect s of lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t , w h ich a t t h e cor e is a b ou t t ea ch in g lea d er sh ip. It r ecou n t s fou r d im en sion s of lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t a n d fi xes on t h e cen t r a l on e, con t en t a n d m et h od ology. It t h en u n cover s s ever a l m a jor op er a t -in g a ssu m p t ion s t h a t p r eva il -in t h e cu r r en t lit er a t u r e. Ra t h er t h a n ser v in g a s a u sefu l gu id e t o effect ive p r a ct ice, t h ese a ssu m p t ion s ca n m islea d p r a ct it ion er s in sign ifi ca n t w ay s. T h e cost s of b ein g m isled h er e a r e h igh , b ot h in t er m s of effect iven ess a n d m on et a r y ou t lay.

H av in g la in b a r e cen t r a l d efi cien cies a p p a r -en t in t h e p r es-en t t h in k in g a b ou t lea d er sh ip d evelop m en t , t h e a r t icle a dva n ces a d iffer en t w ay of con ce p t u a lizin g it . T h is a p p r oa ch ca p it a lizes on t h e p r om is e t h a t exis t s in p r e-sen t in it ia t ives, su ch a s gr ou p exp er ien t ia l lea r n in g; yet a t t h e sa m e t im e avoid s p it fa lls, su ch a s over ly ela b or a t e exp er ien ces w h ose effect s a r e w ea k for t h e exp en se in cu r r ed .

In t h e en d it p oin t s t h e w ay t o m or e lea d er -sh ip lea r n in g for les s exp er ien ce, r a t h er t h a n t h e r ever s e.

References and further reading

Ar gy r is, C.(1992), On Orga n iz a tion a l L ea r n in g, Bla ck w ell Bu sin ess.

Boh m (1992), “Dia logu e: a n in t r od u ct ion ”, a m on ogr a p h .

Bolm a n , L. a n d Dea l, T .(1991), R efra m in g Orga n

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