6 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Review of Related Literature
2.1.1 Translation as The Process of Transferring Meaning.
Translation is to translate from one language to another language or to translate
from Source Language to Target Language to get the meaning. Since there are many different
languages in the world, the study of translation plays a very important role to transfer the
meaning from one language into another one. The meaning can be translated in the oral or
written language.
Translation is becoming increasingly important as a medium of international
communication. The study of translation will help people to understand the characteristics
between two or more languages. Besides, translation is a modern means of communication. We
know that there are so many languages in this world where each language has its own distinctive
features than others. Therefore, in understanding those wide varieties of language people should
know and study about translation. The establishment of communication between people
belonging to different speech communities has long been an important form of linguistic
performance.
Translation is a field of various procedures. In addition to word for word and sense for
sense procedures the translator may use a variety of procedures that differ in importance
according to contextual factors of both Source Language (SL) and Target Language (TL).
Newmark (1998:7) defines “translation is an instrument of education as well as of truth
precisely because it has to reach readers whose cultural an educational level is different from and
often lower or earlier than that of the readers of the original.
Catford also says that translation is an operation performed on languages: a process of
substituting a text in one language for a text in another. Clearly then, any theory of translation
must draw upon a theory of language, a general linguistic theory.
In addition Nida defines “translation consist in reproducing in the receptor language
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terms of style. Differences in translations can generally be accounted for by three basic factors in
translating: 1) the nature of the message, 2) the purpose or purposes of the author and 3) the type
of audience.
Vinay and Darbelnet (2000:99) state that “translation procedures are the basic technique of translation. According to them the procedures can be divided into two methods covering seven
procedures, they are (i) direct translation; consists of borrowing, Calque and literal translation,
and (ii) oblique translation, consisting of transposition, equivalent, modulation and adaptation.
Larson (1998:3) gives the meaning of translation that translation is basically a change of
form. When we speak of the form of a language, we are referring to the actual words, phrases,
clauses, sentences, paragraphs, and other linguistics units, which are spoken or written. In
translation the form of the source language is replaced by the form of the receptor language.
Translation also consists of studying of lexicon, grammatical structure, communication
situation, and cultural context of the source language text. Larson (1998:15) divides translation
into two types. The first one is form-based translation and the second one is meaning-based
translation.
Form-based translation could be defined as a type of translation which attempts to follow the
form of the source language and it is commonly known as literal translation. On the another
hand, meaning-based translation which is also known as idiomatic translation, is a type of
translation that attempts to make every effort to communicate the meaning of the source
language in the natural forms of the receptor language.
Nida (in Venuti 2000) argues there are three basic principles of translation. The basic
principles are the loss of information, the addition of information and the skewing of
information. Nida arranges these principles as a belief which sounds that there is no translation in
a target language can be exact equivalent of the model in source language. Three basic of
translation principles are:
1. Loss of Information.
The translation of items from the source language does not explain the whole information
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“Budi was ill when I met him in home” is translated into “Budi demam ketika saya
menemuinya”.
2. Gain of Information.
The translation of items from the source language into target language is with addition of
extra information. For example: “Ani gadis yang pintar” is translated into “Ani is a smart girl in
class”. When translating from Indonesian into English the translator put an addition of
information in psychology version, which is the verb to be and the feminine gender (she) as well
as an article (a) is added to make the sense more clearly in the target language.
3. Skewing of Information
The translation unit from the source language is not the exact equivalent with the target
language. In this case the translator is skewing some words originally contained in Source
Language to make a more natural translation result in Target Language.
2.1.2 Process of Translation
The process of translation consist of three types. First is anaysis source language text,
second is transfer the message and third is restructurisation. Every translation process is set up as
a transfer from an SL to a TL, the translation process can either go from native tongue to foreign
language or from foreign language to native tongue, either type of transfer will present specific
difficulties (Wills 1971).
In other words, translation as product instead of translating as process. Hence, in doing a
translation process, there are potentially two sets of motivations: those of the producer of the
source text and those of the translator. The goal of the translation process is the optimal
synchronization of SL and TL, a text oriented comparison of the syntactic and lexical potentials
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Larson (1998:4) simply presents the diagram of the translation process as follow:
Source Language Target Language
Discover the Meaning Re-express Meaning
Meaning
Process of translation begins with the discovering of meaning of each term in Source
Language and then it continues to the reconstruction meaning in target language. As stated
before that meaning is the core problem which is going to be transferred from source language to
target language as we can see in the diagram above. A detail understanding of meaning
semantically and culturally will much help the translator in re-expressing the accurate translation
result.
2.1.3 Types of Translation Procedures.
Vinay and Darbelnet (2000:99) arrange seven simple of translation procedures which can be easily used to analyze the translation procedures used by a translator in transferring
meanings from Source Language to Target Language. Those seven procedures could be
summarized as below. Text to be Translated
10 2.1.3.1 Borrowing.
This procedure is the simplest translation procedure. It is used usually when there is a
metalinguistic gap in the target language, for example when a new technique or an unknown
concept is introduced. It can also be used to create a particular stylistic effect, for example to
introduce an element of local, source language color to the target language: tortilla, tequila, and
sauna. Many old loanwords have later become a fixed part of the lexis of the borrowing
language, for example word from English to French: alcool from alcohol, and redingote from
riding-coat. There are some possibilities that may occur in this procedure; first, borrowing with
no change in form and meaning ( pure loanwords), the second, borrowing with changes in form
but without changes the meaning (mix loanwords) and the third, borrowing when part of the term
is native and other part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed (loan blends)
Examples:
a. Borrowing with no change in form and meaning (pure loanwords)
voucher → voucher
bonanza → bonanza
bank → bank
b. Borrowing with change in form but without change the meaning (mix loanwords)
dividend → dividen
accrual → akrual
credit → kredit
debit → debet
c. Loan blend
nominal account → perkiraan nominal
bussines transaction → transaksi usaha
temporary investment → investasi sementara
There are other general statements about the understanding of borrowing giving by
some linguists. Hockett (1958:402) defines borrowing as follow, “the feature which is
imitated is called the model; the language which is the model occurs, or the speaker of that
language, called donor, the language which acquires something new in the process is borrowing
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that loan word or borrowing word should not be return, which means that the donor makes no
sacrifice and does not have to ask for permission. So, there is nothing change because the donor
goes on speaking as before and only the borrower’s speech is altered. Lehman (1962:213) states,
“The process by which word are imported into a language is known as borrowing.” Then, he also
concludes that the influence of one language on another, the result of which have been termed
borrowing. Thus, based on those statements, the understanding of borrowing can be simplified as
a process whereby one language adopts a meaningful unit from another language, or a process in
which one language adopts elements of another.
Hockett (1958:408-416) says that borrowing can be classified into three; they are loans,
pronunciation borrowing, and grammatical borrowing.According to Bolinger (1975:421) that
both form and meaning in loanwords is borrowed, with whatever degree of adaptation to the
phonology of the borrowing languages. The borrower may adopt the donor’s word along with the
object of practice: the new form in the borrower’s speech is then called loanword. The term
loanword is used to denote words taken from foreign language and used it as though it were
native to the language into which it has been borrowed. Therefore, the acquisition of a loanword
constitutes in itself a lexical change and probably should say it constitutes or entails a semantic
change. Loanwords are almost always free form (words or phrases); bound forms are borrowed
as such only with extreme rarity. Then they also show some phonemic substitutions, which occur
mainly depends on how those direct word borrowing from source language, assimilate into
receptor’s language. Moreover, loanwords are direct borrowing from English whose overall
morphemic shape is recognizable English, and which do not show any fusion with receptor’s
language.
If a speaker imitates someone else’s pronunciation of a word, which is already familiar to
the borrower, we may speak of pronunciation borrowing. Usually the donor and borrowing
idiolects are mutually intelligible, and the motive is prestige. A style of pronunciation can also
be imitated, usually for prestige reason, without specific reference to a particular word.
Besides, pronunciation borrowing can operated across language boundaries.
Grammatical change can be brought about indirectly by borrowing-via sets of related
loanwords. Grammatical change is the change in the grammatical core, which includes forms,
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language should be borrowed into another as a loanword, retaining its functional status, the
immediate consequence to be a grammatical change in the borrowing language might be
naturally expected.
2.1.3.2 Borrowing (Loan Blends)
Borrowing (Loan Blends) is another form of loan translation: a complete syntagma
(syntactic unit) is borrowed, but its individual elements are translated literally. The result can be
a Borrowing (Loan Blends) of expression, which preserves the syntsctic structure of the source
language while introducing a new mode of expression to the target language. It consists of
phrases in direct (literal) translations of fixed expression in target language. The result can also
be a structural Borrowing (Loan Blends), which introduces a whole new construction into the
target language, for example science- fiction, used as such in French. Borrowing (Loan Blends)
is loan translation (linear substitution) of morphologically analyzable source language syntagms
which after a time, are often accepted, or at least tolerated by the target language community.
2.1.3.3 Literal Translation
This procedure is a word for word translation, replacement of source language syntactic
structures, normally on the clause or sentence scale, by syntactic which are isomorphic (or near
isomorphic) concerning number and type of speech parts and synonymous in term of content,
where the resulting target language is grammatically correct and idiomatic. The translation has
not needed to make any changes other than the obvious one, like those concerning grammatical
concord or inflectional endings, This procedure is most commonly found in translations between
closely related language. These are some examples of literal translation.
Examples:
Deferral → penangguhan
revenue expenditure → pengeluaran pendapatan
capital element → unsur modal
capital increase → modal bertambah
13 2.1.3.4 Procedure 4: Transposition
Transposition means the replacing of one word-class by another without changing the
meaning of the message. It can also be used within a language, as when rewarding the phrase, for
example ‘He announced that he would return’ to ‘He announced his return’ (the subordinate verb
becomes a noun). In translation, there are two types of transposition: obligatory and optimal. It is
also a change in the grammar from source language to target language (singular to plural;
position of the adjective, changing the word class or part of speech). There are more examples of
transposition
Examples:
sales journal → buku harian
Penjualan equity → hak pemilikan
hak proceeds → hasil diskonto
balance sheet → neraca
2.1.3.5 Procedure 5: Modulation
Modulation means a variation in the message due to a change in the point of view: seeing
something in different light. Using modulation is justified when a literal or transposed translation
results in a form which is not quite natural and going against the felling of the target language.
There are two types of modulation: fixed and free. Fixed or obligatory modulation must be used
when for example translating a phrase ‘the time when’ to French as ‘le moment ou’. In this
example, the time become moment, and when becomes where. In this case of fixed modulation, a
competent bilingual will not hesitate to have recourse to this procedure if it supported by
frequency or total acceptance of usage, or a status establish by the dictionary or grammar.
Free or optimal modulation takes place for example, when a negative expression in the
source language positive in the target language because of language- specific stylistic features:
‘it is not difficult to show’ becomes ‘il est facile de demontrer’ (‘it is easy to show’). With the
free modulation the process must be undergone anew in this case, and no fixation has taken
place.
However, free modulation is not really optimal in the strict sense, for when it is correctly
done, it must result in the ideal target language solution corresponding to the source language
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“Yes, that just how it would be said.” A free modulation may at any moment become fixed
as soon as it becomes frequent, or is felt to be a unique solution.
2.1.3.6 Procedure 6: Equivalence
Two texts in different language will account for the same situation by means of very
different stylistic and structural devices. The change which happened in the message with this
procedure is usually syntagmatic, and it affects the whole message. Most examples of this
procedure belong to the phraseological repertoire of idiom, clichés, and proverbs, nominal or
adjectival collocation. For example the proverbs ‘too many cooks spoil the broth’ becomes ‘deux
patrons font chavirer la barque’ (two skippers will capsize the boat”) in French. It must be
remembered, that idioms, for example as like as two peas must not be translated as Borrowing
(Loan Blends)s or any account, for the responsibility of introducing Borrowing (Loan Blends)s
(of idiom) into a language that is already perfectly organized should be the author’s choice,
not the translators. There are other examples of equivalence in accounting term:
Examples:
account payable → hutang dagang
account receivable → piutang dagang
marketable security → surat berharga
2.1.3.7 Procedure 7: Adaptation
This procedure is used in cases where the situation to which the message refers does not
exist at all in the target language and must thus be created by reference to a new situation, which
is judged to be equivalent. For example, it is culturally normal for an English father to kiss his
daughter on the mouth, but a similar action would be culturally unacceptable in a French
text, and must be translated as something like ‘il serra tendrement sa fille dans ses bras’ (‘he
tenderly embraced his daughter in his arms’).
A refusal to make use of adaptations which are not only structural but also pertain to the
presentation of idea or their arrangement in the paragraph, leads to a text that is perfectly correct
but nevertheless invariably betray its status as translation by something indefinable in its tone,
15 2.2 Information Technology Terms
Stands for "Information Technology," and is pronounced "I.T." It refers to anything
related to computing technology, such as networking, hardware, software, the Internet, or the
people that work with these technologies. Many companies now have IT departments for
managing the computers, networks, and other technical areas of their businesses. IT jobs include
computer programming, network administration, computer engineering, Web development,
technical support, and many other related occupations. Since we live in the "information age,"
information technology has become a part of our everyday lives. That means the term "IT,"
already highly overused, is here to stay.
And below provided some examples related to IT terms found in the Sony Ericsson W150i’s user
guidebook and being categorized in 6 categories :
Term Category
Hardware
Software
Software
File Formats
Software
Software
Internet
Technical
Bits and Bytes
Internet
