Instructional materials on short functional texts for senior high school students grade X - USD Repository

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INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS ON SHORT FUNCTIONAL TEXTS FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS GRADE X

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theSarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Dyah Putripratiwi Student Number: 021214048

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION DEPARTMENT TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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iv

This

thesis

is

dedicated

especially to my Almighty God

and my beloved parents.

He�has�made�

everything�beautiful�

in�His�time€

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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.

Yogyakarta, January 18, 2010

The Writer

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vi ABSTRACT

Putripratiwi, Dyah. 2011. Instructional Materials on Short Functional Texts for Senior High School Students Grade X. Yogyakarta: English Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

The SchoolBased Curriculum (SBC) has been implemented in every formal education in Indonesia since 2006. This curriculum requires the teachers to design their own teaching materials, including English teachers since English has become one of compulsory subjects for Final Examination. Trough this curriculum, teachers are challenged for being creative in teaching learning process, as well as preparing the teaching materials. However, it is difficult for many teachers to find and design English teaching materials, especially on short functional texts.

This study was aimed to propose the instructional materials on short functional texts for Senior High School students grade X. The problem of this study was formulated as what the proposed instructional materials on short functional texts for Senior High School students grade X according to School Based Curriculum for English teaching was. Short functional text is defined as a text that has particular function, which is used in everyday life. This text was learnt in senior high school, as stated in SBC. To obtain the objectives, there were five steps adopted from educational research and development cycle as the method of the study. They were (1) collecting information, (2) planning the unit, (3) developing the unit, (4) evaluating the unit and (5) revising the unit.

Moreover, this study adopted the Banathy’s instructional design model as the model of the design. The five steps adopted were (1) objectives formulation, (2) analyze learning task, (3) system design, (4) implement and test output and (5) change to improve.

Furthermore, literacy approach was implemented in designing the instructional materials on short functional text. The approach developed two cycles, which were spoken cycle and written cycle. Each cycle consisted of four stages. They were (1) building knowledge of field, (2) modeling and deconstructing the text, (3) joint construction of the text and (4) independent construction of the text.

After designing some units as models, the next step was evaluated the units. Therefore, interviews were conducted to three senior high school teachers who were experienced in teaching short functional text for grade X. The interviews were conducted in order to get data to improve the designed materials, which was used as models for designing the other units. The materials presented as the final result were developed based on the revisions and the evaluators’ relevant suggestions.

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vii ABSTRAK

Putripratiwi, Dyah. 2011. Instructional Materials on Short Functional Texts for Senior High School Students Grade X. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) telah diterapkan di setiap tingkat pendidikan formal di Indonesia sejak tahun 2006. Kurikulum ini memberikan kebebasan pada guru untuk merancang materi pengajaran secara mandiri. Demikian juga dengan guru mata pelajaran Bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Inggris merupakan salah satu pelajaran pokok yang diujikan pada Ujian Nasional. Melalui kurikulum ini, guru bahasa Inggris diberikan tantangan untuk menjadi kreatif dalam proses belajar mengajar, termasuk menyiapkan materi atau bahan ajar. Namun, sampai saat ini masih banyak guru yang merasa kesulitan untuk menemukan dan merancang materi pengajaran Bahasa Inggris terutama materi teks fungsional pendek.

Studi ini bertujuan mengusulkan materi pengajaran teks fungsional pendek untuk siswa SMA kelas X. Rumusan masalah studi ini adalah seperti apakah usulan materi pengajaran teks fungsional pendek untuk siswa SMA kelas X berdasarkan KTSP. Teks fungsional pendek merupakan teks yang bermanfaat yang digunakan dalam kehidupan seharihari, yang dipelajari oleh siswa SMA, seperti yang tercantum dalam KTSP. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, digunakan lima langkah yang diadaptasi dari penelitian dan pengembangan pendidikan. Langkahlangkah tersebut adalah: (1) pengumpulan informasi, (2) perencanaan, (3) pengembangan materi, (4) wawancara untuk evaluasi, dan (5) perbaikan materi.

Tambahan pula, studi ini mengadopsi model pengajaran Banathy sebagai model rancangan. Langkahlangkah yang diadopsi antara lain: (1) perumusan tujuan, (2) analisis tujuan pembelajaran, (3) penyusunan materi, (4) penerapan dan hasil tes, dan (5) perubahan untuk perbaikan.

Selanjutnya, digunakan pendekatan literasi untuk merancang materi teks fungsional pendek ini. Pendekatan tersebut meliputi pengembangan dua siklus yaitu siklus lisan dan siklus tertulis. Masingmasing siklus terdiri dari empat tahap, yaitu: (1) membangun konteks, (2) membuat model dan menganalisa teks, (3) menyusun teks bersama, dan (4) menyusun teks sendiri.

Setelah merancang beberapa unit materi pengajaran sebagai model, langkah selanjutnya adalah mengevaluasi rancangan tersebut. Oleh karena itu, dilaksanakan wawancara dengan tiga guru SMA yang mempunyai pengalaman mengajar teks fungsional pendek untuk kelas X. Wawancara tersebut dilaksanakan untuk memperoleh data yang digunakan untuk meningkatkan rancangan materi, yang berikutnya digunakan sebagai acuan untuk merancang unit berikutnya hingga mencapai delapan unit. Materi yang disajikan sebagai hasil akhir merupakan materi yang dikembangkan berdasarkan beberapa materi yang sudah direvisi atau ditingkatkan sesuai dengan saransaran yang relevan dari para guru sebagai evaluator.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My first gratitude goes to Jesus the Saviour who has taken care of me all the time. Only by his blessing, I can finally reach the finish line of my study.

Secondly, I would like to express my appreciation to F.X. Mukarto, M.S., Ph.D., my sponsor for helping me finishing this thesis with his comments, suggestions and criticism. His encouragement contributed much as I could complete my thesis.

My special thankfulness goes to ibu Ndari, pak Prast and ibu Marni for having good time in common room. For all lecturers in the English Education Study Program, I thank them for the days they have spent during my study.

I am greatly grateful to have supportive parents: my dad, Suryo Subroto, and my mom, Tris Wijanarti. Only by their continuous pray I can finally present this thesis as Christmas gift for them.

My gratitude also goes to ibu Yovita, ibu Resti, and ibu Yanti who have given me their opinions, comments, and suggestions towards the designed materials.

My thankfulness goes to mbak Dhanniek, mbak Tari and pak Antok for assisting me with all the administrative matters during my study time.

My special thanks go to Uus, my man, for his continuous support, loving, and care. Your presence really eases the difficult days. I would also like to thank Ibu Ujud for her continuous pray.

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Thanks to Rury, Zakti, Arai, Selly, Niken, Udjo, Mawar, Bekti, Very, Lulu, Kiki, Nissa, Iin, Rendy, Krisna, Miko, Andre, Dimasjantri, Kadal, Cecil, Regina, mbak Ades, mbak Arin and all of the students of PBI of 2002 for the greatest time that we have shared together. I also thank Lukas, Proti, Willy ’03, Prisca, and Kristin ’06 who have been my good friends so far.

My special thankfulness is given to Eko, Pritty, and Iwan for helping me with the troubleshooting and listening to my worries.

I also want to thank Perkutut 11 boarding house and its entire people, Anez, Dinnar, mbak Anies, mbak Ayu, Sesya, and Felix. This place is really a convenient place to live and laugh.

At least, thanks to Viera and Chiko for being the “911thesissupport”. Their companion and positive energy always cheer me up and enlighten my days in the thesis making process.

May God give them prosperity.

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : DYAH PUTRIPRATIWI

Nomor Mahasiswa : 021214048

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS ON SHORT FUNCTIONAL TEXTS FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS GRADE X

Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 27 Januari 2011

Yang menyatakan

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PAGE OF TITLE ………. i

PAGES OF APPROVAL ………. ii

PAGE OF DEDICATION ……….. iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ……… v

ABSTRACT ……….…… vi

ABSTRAK ……….…….... vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………. viii

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI……… x

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………. xi

LIST OF TABLES ………... xiv

LIST OF FIGURES ………. xv

LIST OF APPENDICES ………. xvi

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study ……….. B. Problem Formulation………. C. Problem Limitation ………... D. Objectives of the Study ………. E. Benefits of the Study ………. F. Definitions of Terms ……….

1

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED THEORIES

A. Theoretical Description ………. 1. SchoolBased Curriculum ………

a. The Role of Teachers in SchoolBased

Curriculum ……….. b. The Roles of Students in SchoolBased

Curriculum ………

6 6

7

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xii

c. The Scope of English Education for Senior High School ……….. 2. Communicative Competence ……….. 3. Model of Language ………..

a. Context ……… 1) Context of Culture ……….. 2) Context of Situation ……… b. Text ………. c. Language System ……… 4. Literacy Approach ………

a. Scaffolding ……….. b. Cycles and Stages ……… c. Spoken and Written Language ……… 5. Short Functional Texts ………. a. Advertisement ………. 1) Purpose of Advertisement ……….. 2) Kinds of Advertisement …………...……….. 3) Language in Advertisement ……… b. Announcement ……… c. Invitation ………. 6. Banathy’s Instructional Design Model ……… 7. Educational Research and Development ………….. B. Theoretical Framework ………

8

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

A. Collecting Information ……… B. Planning ………...

1. Stating the Objectives ... 2. Mapping ... C. Developing the Preliminary Form of Product ………

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xiii

2. Learning Program Plan ... 3. Developing Instructional Materials on Short

Functional Texts ……….. D. Interviewing Participants ………. E. Product Revision ……….

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37 38 40

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

A. The Proposed Model of Instructional Materials ... B. The Accountability of the Proposed Model of

Instructional Materials on Short Functional Texts ….. 1. Internal Accountability ………... 2. External Accountability ………...

41

41 42 46

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

A. Conclusions ………. B. Suggestions ……….

49 50

REFERENCES ……...……… 52

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xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Page Table 2.1: The main functions of language and their relationship to the

register variables ……….. 15

Table 2.2: The summary of structural, communicative, and literacy approachbased curriculum ……….. 17

Table 2.3: The changing nature of the collaboration between teacher and learner in response to learner progress ………. 19

Table 3.1: The objectives of the Instructional Materials ……… 35

Table 3.2: The description of the evaluators ……….. 38

Table 4.1: The objectives of the spoken cycle ……… 42

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 2.1: Schematic Representation of Communicative Competence … 9 Figure 2.2: The Language Model ……… 11 Figure 2.3: The Relationship of the Three Layers of Language ………… 15 Figure 2.4: Stages and Cycles ………. 20 Figure 2.5: Banathy’s Instructional Design Diagram ……….. 27 Figure 2.6: The Relationship of Banathy’s Instructional Design and

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xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix 1: Permission Letters………... 55

Appendix 2: Interview Result ……….. 57

Appendix 3: Syllabus ………... 65

Appendix 4: Learning Program Plan ……… 79

Appendix 5: Instructional Materials ……….……… 113

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, and definitions of terms used in the study.

A. Background of the Study

Facing the globalization era, communication through common language is a necessity. In order to be able to communicate and associate actively with global society, quality of human resources should be increased. Many people believe that mastering foreign language is one of the ways to develop the human resources. In Indonesia, English as a foreign language has been used as the bridge to broaden knowledge. It is also considered as the first language to improve science, technology, art and culture to maintain the relationship with other countries (Depdiknas, 2004).

This study focuses on English for Senior High School students since English has become one of compulsory subjects for Final Examination. Moreover, many of students should prepare themselves to look for jobs. Most of companies prefer those who have an ability to use English. Consequently, Senior High School students should equip themselves with various skills, including using English in spoken or written form to face the working world.

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every formal education in Indonesia. Made as the improvement of the previous curriculum, Competency Based Curriculum, the guideline of SchoolBased Curriculum is not too different from the CBC guideline. It puts communicative competence of learning English at school and emphasizes on the development of four basic language skills. Those are listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Depdiknas, 2003:6). The teachers' role in School–Based Curriculum is a facilitator. Therefore, preparing materials and helping the students in learning are teachers’ responsibilities.

In language learning, teachers are demanded to be creative in creating or using materials. With various kinds of interesting materials used, the students will be interested in learning English. Dealing with materials used in teaching, many kinds of short functional texts are used. According to BNSP (2006), there are three scopes of English learning in Senior High School. One of them is to comprehend and create any kinds of short functional text, and monologue and essay in any kinds of genres. At this point, the short functional text can be in a form of notices, cards, posters, announcements, invitations, advertisements, etc.

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As the consequences, the students and teachers need instructional materials on short functional texts. However, it is difficult for many teachers to find and design English teaching materials, especially on short functional texts. Therefore, this study is conducted to give a contribution by proposing instructional materials on short functional texts for Senior High School students grade X.

B. Problem Formulation

The problem of this study is formulated as follows: What is the proposed instructional materials on short functional texts for Senior High School students grade X according to SchoolBased Curriculum for English teaching?

C. Problem Limitation

This study is limited on proposing instructional materials on short functional texts for Senior High School students grade X. The materials are focused on advertisement, announcement, and invitation, as short functional texts used to teach Senior High School students grade X. They are arranged based on the guidelines of SchoolBased Curriculum. This study will discuss proposed instructional materials, not the implementation of the developed materials.

D. Objectives of the Study

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E. Benefits of the Study

This study, hopefully give beneficial contributions for: 1. English Teachers

The study will help teachers in providing instructional materials on short functional texts and developing the application of designed materials. 2. The students

As the materials designed based on SchoolBased Curriculum, the activities hopefully facilitate students to develop their skills and improve their competencies.

3. Further research/study

The study will give contribution on how to design or develop materials, especially for instructional materials on short functional texts.

F. Definitions of Terms

There are some terms used in developing the program to avoid misinterpretation. Here are the terms that will be used frequently.

1. Instructional Materials

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2. Short Functional Texts

In this study, short functional text is defined as a text that has practical function which is used in everyday life. It is an authentic material used in teaching learning activities.

3. Senior High Schools Students

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6 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Two major discussions will be presented in this chapter. They are theoretical description and theoretical framework. Some related theories about SchoolBased Curriculum, communicative competence, model of language, literacy approach, short functional texts, advertisement, announcement, invitation, instructional design model, and educational research development will be discussed in the theoretical description. Furthermore, the theoretical framework will present the summary of theoretical description and explain the steps taken in developing the instructional materials.

2.1. Theoretical Description

This section will discuss theories related to SchoolBased Curriculum, communicative competence, model of language, literacy approach, short functional texts, advertisement, announcement, invitation, instructional design model, and educational research development.

2.1.1. SchoolBased Curriculum

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curriculum. In addition, the SchoolBased Curriculum emphasizes the competency of the students. Thus, the students are demanded to achieve the basic competence in language for communicative purpose. In other words, this curriculum is designed to help the users develop English communicative competence as life skills. Moreover, SchoolBased Curriculum has specific characteristics in the role of the teachers and the students.

2.1.1.1.The Role of Teachers in SchoolBased Curriculum

In School – Based Curriculum, the teachers are expected to develop and apply their own curriculum (BSNP, 2006: 5). Furthermore, according to Mulyasa, (2003: 188) teacher is not the main source of the learning. Teachers act as a facilitator which means teachers should help the students in learning process, and prepare the materials used in teaching learning activities. Thus, teachers are more considered as students’ partners that have duty to create conducive atmosphere for learning. Mulyasa (2003) defined a conducive atmosphere as having an active, creative, effective and interesting learning environment.

2.1.1.2. The Role of Students in SchoolBased Curriculum

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2.1.1.3.The Scopes of English Education for Senior High School

There are three scopes of English education for Senior High School (Depdiknas, 2006). The scopes are:

1) Communicative competence, an ability to comprehend and/or create spoken and written texts through four basic skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing, in integrated, to achieve the informational literacy level.

2) An ability to comprehend and create any kinds of short functional texts and monolog, and essay in a form of procedure, descriptive, recount, narrative, report, news item, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, spoof, explanation, discussion, review, and public speaking. The materials gradation can be seen from vocabulary building, language focus, and rhetorical.

3) Supporting competence which includes linguistic competence, sociocultural competence, strategic competence, and discourse competence.

2.1.2. Communicative Competence

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communicative competence, the communicative competence model proposed by CelceMurcia might be the important guideline.

Figure 2.1. Schematic Representation of Communicative Competence (CelceMurcia 1995:10)

Based on the diagram, CelceMurcia recommended that communicative competence is made up of five competences areas as follows.

a. Linguistic competence

It is a competence on knowing how to use the grammar, intonation, punctuation, syntax and vocabulary on a language.

b. Actual competence

Actual competence means an ability to do something by using language to convey certain message both spoken and written.

Discourse Competence Sociocultural

competence

Linguistic

Competence Competence Actual

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c. Sociocultural competence

It refers to the ability to communicate in the way native speakers of the language do based on the cultural where the language is used (Depdiknas, 2004: 58). It is about knowing how to use and respond to the language in community appropriately.

d. Strategic competence

This competence allows a speaker to compensate deficiencies in the process of communication (Depdiknas, 2004: 61). It means knowing to recognize and repair communication breakdowns, and how to work around gaps.

e. Discourse competence

It is a competence that learners are able to create texts, both spoken and written in real communication (Depdiknas, 2004: 58).

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2.1.3. Model of Language

The aim of teaching English is to enable the learners to create English texts not only sentence grammatically, but also English discourse grammatically (Agustien, 2005: 12). It means that as every culture has its ways of creating text, therefore, the model of language is needed to create a text in English way.

In this study, the language model is mentioned as functional language model. There are six main concepts of language model (Feez, 2002: 5). They are:

1. A language is a resource for making meaning,

2. The resource of language consists of a set of interrelated systems, 3. Language users draw on this resource each time they use the language, 4. Language users create texts to make meaning,

5. Texts are shaped by the social context where and when they are used, and 6. The social context is shaped by the people who use the language.

The following diagram illustrates the model of language; a model that looks at language as communication or texts as a ‘record’ of context (Agustien, 2005: 11)

CULTURE Genre (Purpose) SITUATION Who is involved?

(Tenor) Subject Channel Matter

(Field) (Mode) REGISTER

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It can be seen from the diagram that text is a product of contexts. Moreover, there are three important points in language. They are contexts, text, and language system. The following are the elaboration of those points.

2.1.3.1.Context

Context is related to the shared field of experience owned by people communicate. In other words, people should decide and consider what kinds of context they arranged in communication. In any context, language is used for three main functions (Depdiknas, 2003: 4) as follows.

1. Ideational Function

This function is about the use of language to express ideas and to communicate information.

2. Interpersonal Function

This function is about the way language is used to build the social relation among others. It can be seen from human interaction, through expressing opinions, attitudes, and feelings.

3. Textual Function

This function is about organizing meanings into spoken or written text.

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2.1.3.1.1. Context of Culture

In figure 2.2, the largest box represents context of culture. In the context of culture, recognizable patterns of structure and language within texts have evolved (Feez, 1998: 6). The patterns are called genres. Therefore, every context of culture produces text type or genre. In other words, particular culture determines the types of texts or genres which are produced. Thus, teacher needs to address some English genres appropriately.

2.1.3.1.2. Context of Situation

The smaller box in figure 2.2 represents context of situation. When communication occurs, people cope different context of situation. Each situation is characterized by register of language. As cited in Depdiknas, (2004: 13), Halliday (1985a: 41) defines register as what the speakers are talking about and depends on what the speakers are doing at the moment the language is used. The register of any context of situation is a combination of three variables (Gerot and Wignell, 1994: 11). The variables are:

1. Field

Field refers to what is going on, including which subject matter is being discussed, and social activity in which the speakers who communicate are involved.

2. Tenor

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3. Mode

Mode refers to the channel of communication used by the speakers, whether it is spoken or written.

Those register variables affect the peoples’ language choice in communication.

2.1.3.2.Text

The smallest box in figure 2.2 represents the text used in context. Text can be defined as any stretch of language which is held together cohesively through meaning (Feez, 2002: 4). When people communicate through conversation or writing, they create a text indeed. Moreover, Halliday as quoted in Depdiknas (2004: 15) called a text as a social exchanging meaning. When people listen and read, they are involved in exchanging meaning.

2.1.3.3.Language System

According to Feez (2002: 6), language has three layers which occur simultaneously whenever it is used. These layers are:

1) Meaning of discourse semantics

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Discourse semantics (Texts)

Lexicogrammar (Words and structure)

Expression (Sounds or writing) Table 2.1 The main functions of language and their relationship

to the register variables

Ideational

Language represents the world logically through experiential and logical meanings.

These meanings are reflection of field.

Interpersonal Language builds relationships through interpersonal meanings.

These meanings are a reflection of tenor.

Textual

Language organizes meanings into spoken and written text through textual meanings

These meanings are a reflection of mode.

2) Words and structures of the lexicogrammar

This layer gives human language its creative power and its complexity. It shows how grammatical patterns structure words into phrases and finally into clauses.

3) Expression or phonology and graphology

The expression layer is the layer of the language model which we perceive in the physical world. The technical term for a sound we hear in spoken language is phoneme, and the technical term for a symbol we see in written language is grapheme. Graphemes are shown as letters of the alphabet.

Below is the relationship of the three layers of language is (Feez, 2002: 7).

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2.1.4. Literacy Approach

Referring to Depdiknas (2003: 9), literacy approach is used as the appropriate approach in implementing a textbased syllabus, in which language education is aimed to prepare the students to be able to participate in modern society (Hammond et al, 1992).

There are seven literacy principles proposed by Kern (2000) as cited in Depdiknas (2004: 46). They are:

a) Interpretation

In this principle, the writer interpret ideas, events, and experiences in his or her own way. After that, the reader interpret those things based on his or her own concept or knowledge.

b) Collaboration

It is the writer’s obligation to give contribution in a form of motivation, knowledge, and experiences to be acknowledge by the audience or the students.

c) Convention

The way people read and write are controlled by convention which had been modified according to the students needs.

d) Cultural knowledge

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e) Problem solving

Words are always covered by linguistics and situation contexts. Therefore, reading and writing involve the knowledge of words itself, including problem solving on the relationship between words and texts. f) Reflection and self reflection

The writer and the reader should concern the language and how it refelected towards the world and her or himself.

g) Language use

Language use is definitely the principle that designed for language education (Agustien, 2005: 15). In this principle, language is used in spoken and written contexts to shape the discourse. Kern also connects the communicative language use dimension with structural dimension. The brief comparison is shown below:

Table 2.2 The summary of structural, communicative, and literacy approachbased curriculum (Kern, 2000: 304 as cited in Depdiknas, 2004: 48) Structural

Emphasis

Communicative

Emphasis Literacy Emphasis

Knowing Doing Doing and reflecting on doing

in terms of knowing

Usage Use Usage or use relations

Language forms Language functions Formfunctions relationship Achievement

(i.e. display of knowledge)

Functional ability to communicate

Communicative appropriateness informed by

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Moreover, as quoted by Agustien (2005: 14), Wells (1991) classified four levels of literacy. They are performative, functional, informational, and epistemic levels. Those levels are elaborated as follows.

a) Performative level

In this level, students are expected to be able to write what they say or to say what is written. It is appropriate to be literacy target if English is taught at Primary Schools.

b) Functional level

In this level, students are able to be a member of particular society that participate in the creation of texts to serve their daily needs, such as reading a newspaper, manual, or instruction. It is the literacy target for Junior High School graduates.

c) Informational level

In this level, students are expected to be able to access knowledge to communicate for academic purposes. Therefore, Senior High School students develop the communicative competence in spoken and written form to achieve this level.

d) Epistemic level

In this level, students are able to inform knowledge to the target language. It is a literacy target for universities in Indonesia.

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learning language is divided into stages and cycles, which consider the spoken and written language. The following parts clarify the scaffolding, the stages and cycles, and the differences of spoken and written language in literacy approach.

2.1.4.1.Scaffolding

Scaffolding is a term used to describe that learning is collaboration between teacher and student with the teacher facilitates the students’ transition from assisted to independent performance (Vygotsky (1978) as cited in Feez, 1998: 26). In this collaboration, language is always involved through dialogue between teacher and student.

Below is the table that represents the collaboration between teachers and students (Feez, 2002: 27).

Table 2.3 The changing nature of the collaboration between teachers and students in response to learner progress

SCAFFOLDING independent learner performance with no contribution from teacher

LEARNER PROGRESS potential performance

Diminishing contribution from teacher as learner’s independent

contribution increases

Significant contribution from teacher to support dependent contribution

from learner

zone of proximal development

Learner’s entry level assessed by teacher

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Principally, through scaffolding teachers provide explicit knowledge and guided practice until the students can perform independently.

2.1.4.2. Cycles and Stages

Teaching English using literacy approach concerns with two cycles, called spoken cycle and written cycle (Feez, 2002). Since advertisement, announcement, and invitataion are available in a form of spoken and written, this study also involved those two cycles. Moreover, Feez (2002: 28) also suggests the fifth stage called linking related texts that can be considered as alternative follow up.

Building knowledge Modelling of Test of field cultural context cultural context social function shared experience schematic structure control of relevant linguistis features

vocabulary using spoken language grammatical patterns to focus on written test

Independent Joint Construction of Text Construction of Text schematic structure schematic structure linguistic features linguistic features knowledge of field knowledge of field

Figure 2.4 Stages and Cycles (Hammond et al. 1992:17) Increasing

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Teaching learning activities consist of four stages. They are:

Stage1: Building knowledge of the field

In this stage, firstly students are introduced to the social context of an authentic model of the text type being studied. It means the students build the knowledge of the topic of the model text and knowledge of the social activity in which the text is used. Second, students explore features of the general cultural context in which the texttype is used and the social purposes the text type achieves. Third, students explore the immediate context of situation.

Stage 2: Modeling and deconstructing the text

The students in this stage are expected to investigate the structural pattern and language features of the model, and then compare the model with other examples of the text type. Modeling and deconstruction activities are undertaken at the whole text, clause, and expressions level.

Stage 3: Joint construction of the text

In this stage, students begin to contribute to the construction of whole example of the text type, while the teacher gradually reduces the contribution to the text construction, as the students move closer to being able to control the text type independently.

Stage 4: Independent construction of the text

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2.1.4.3.Spoken and Written Language

Halliday (1985), as quoted by Agustien (2005), identifies that spoken language is characterized by grammatical intricacy; it contains many clauses with all kind of paratactic and hypotactic relations; it uses personal pronouns as subject, etc. In contrast, written language is characterized by lexical density; it uses noun phrases to realize subjects and objects; it often uses passive construction, etc.

In the new curriculum, the differences and similarities of spoken and written language consider significant, because people learn spoken language first before they learn the written version (Agustien, 2005). Hence, learners are expected to start from the spoken version and end up with written language.

2.1.5. Short Functional Text

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2.1.5.1.Advertisement

The following are some characteristics of advertisement, including the definition and purpose, and kinds of advertisement.

2.1.5.1.1. Purpose of Advertisement

According to Amstell (1989) as cited by Marlina (2006), the most important purpose of advertisement is to deliver message or information to an audience for one reason or another, in order to influence and persuade them to believe or get interested in what is being advertised or offered. Advertisement is used as a medium to persuade or influence an audience.

2.1.5.1.2. Kinds of Advertisement

Bovee (1986), as cited by Widyatama (2007) classified advertisement into several categories. Two important classifications are advertisement based on its purpose, and advertisement based on its media.

a) Advertisement based on its Purpose

Based on its purpose, advertisement is categorized in a type of commercial and social advertisement.

(1) Commercial Advertisement

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(2) Public Service Advertisement

Public Service Advertisement (PSA) aimed to get social benefit which can be seen from society development. The most popular social advertisement recently is dealing with education and environment.

b) Advertisement based on its Media

Based on its media, there are two major categories of advertisement. First is above the line advertisement, including printed and electronic media such as newspaper, magazine, radio, television, and internet advertisement. Second is below the line advertisement, including poster, banner, etc. The other classifications according to Widyatama (2007: 79) are printed and electronic advertisement. The printed advertisement is existing in a form of line ad, column ad, display, and advertorial. Whereas the electronic advertisement presented in a form of radio ad including ad lib, spot, and sponsor program, and television advertisement including live action, animation, stop action, music, superimposed, backdrop, etc.

2.1.5.1.3. Language in Advertisement

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Both in spoken and written advertisements, language have specific functions. It is impossible to produce radio advertisement without language, and even an interesting video easy to understand without any language. Language of advertisement must be persuasive, either in style of narrative, descriptive, or expository.

2.1.5.2.Announcement

Based on Wiki Online Dictionary (2010), the words ‘to announce’ means to make known. Furthermore, announcement in this study can be defined as something said, written or printed to make known what has happened or what will happen. An announcement generally consists of title or type of event, date or time or place, and contact person. Announcement can also be in a form of obituary, congratulation letter, etc.

2.1.5.3.Invitation

According to Sudaryanto (2009), invitation has its purpose to invite someone to attend an occasion. Five parts should be present on an invitation are the addressee, salutation, the message, and the sender. Therefore, invitation has requirements as follows.

1) It should have an accurate addressee. 2) It gives clear time, place, and activity.

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2.1.6. Banathy’s Instructional Design Model

Referring to Banathy (1976), education is a system, and a system contains subsystem. It can be implied that an instructional material is a system of education system. As a system is built upon three components, that are purpose, content, and process, there are six major parts in instructional system (Banathy, 1976:17) .They are:

1) Formulating objectives

Specifying a statement that spells out what we expect the learners to do, know, and feel as a result of his learning experience.

2) Developing test

The test is develop based on the objectives and used to test terminal proficiency.

3) Analyzing learning task

To find out what should be learned by the students. It consists of three parts:

a) the analysis of inventory of the learning task b) the assessment testing and input competence c) the identification and the actual learning task 4) Designing the system

Develop a system which consists of four major strategies: a) Functional analysis

b) Component analysis

c) Distribution of function among components

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5) Implementation and testing

The system designed are tested, implemented, installed, and evaluated. 6) Changing to improve the system

The findings of the evaluation are fed back into the system to see what changes –if any are needed to improve the system.

Figure 2.5 Banathy’s Instructional Design Diagram

2.1.7. Educational Research and Development

Educational research and development (R & D) is a process used to develop and validate educational products. The goal of R & D is to discover new knowledge or to answer specific questions about practical problems rather than only to develop products (Borg and Gall, 1983:772). In other words, R & D method take the research knowledge and incorporate the knowledge into a product that can be used in the schools. R & D is developed to bridge the gap between research and practice.

Formulation

objectives learning task Analyze Design system

Develop test

Change to improve Implement &

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There are ten major steps in the R & D cycle. They are: 1) Research and information collecting

All review of literature, classroom observations, and preparation of report are collected at this step, in order to determine the state of knowledge in the concerned area.

2) Planning

Planning is needed before developing the product. In this step, stating the objectives is the most important thing. Objectives become the best basis in developing the product in order to give the suitable guidance in developing product.

3) Develop preliminary form of product

This step shows how the preliminary product is developed. It includes preparation of instructional materials, related knowledge needed, and evaluation devices.

4) Preliminary field testing

Test on the preliminary product is conducted to get qualified evaluation of the product. The method used can be by interview, observation or distributing questionnaires.

5) Main product revision

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6) Main field testing

The revised product is tested again to determine the success of the product in meeting its objectives. The test will result other information that can be used to improve the next revision.

7) Operational product revision

This step is aimed to revise the revised product if the findings of main field testing find any weaknesses in the product, the first revision of the product is considered failed in meeting its objectives.

8) Operational field testing

In this step, the second revision of the product is tested to determine whether the product is already complete. The new information that might be got from this step is usually not as much as the previous.

9) Final product revision

The final product is carried out when the data has been analyzed and the product is considered complete. The final result of the revision can be used in the teaching learning process.

10) Dissemination and implementation

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2.2.Theoretical Framework

In order to answer the question of the problem formulation, the writer did a literature review related to the designing an instructional materials on advertisement, invitation, and announcement as short functional texts for Senior High School students.

The framework of this design model proposed consists of five steps as follow.

1) Objectives Formulation

Consider goals, list topics, and state the general purposes. It refers to the standard competence, basic competence, and indicators, based on School Based Curriculum.

2) Analyzing Learning Task

This step focuses the study in analyzing the materials and exercises that will be used in the design of this study. Decide what materials should be learnt by the students will avoid inappropriate and unnecessary materials. 3) System Design

The design includes spoken and written cycles in which each cycle consists of four stages. The stages are building knowledge of the field, modeling and deconstructing of the text, joint construction of the text, and independent construction of the text.

4) Implementation and Test Output

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teachers who are experienced in using short functional text in teaching learning activities. The result would be the consideration in improving the design.

5) Change to Improve

The result findings used to improve and revise the designed materials. The result of the improvement would be the final product.

To cover all steps in conducting this study, R & D cycle is adopted. There are five steps of R & D which become the method of this study. They are:

1) Collecting information

In this first step, a library research is conducted, including the theory of SchoolBased Curriculum and short functional texts. The theories of the curriculum are syllabus and learning program plan.

2) Planning

In designing the model of instructional materials, planning is consider important for the reason that it gives an outline on what to do and what are the important materials for the unit.

3) Developing the Preliminary of Product

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4) Interviewing Participant

The information gathered from the interview will be the consideration in improving the instructional materials on short functional texts.

5) Product Revision

After interviewing participants, the data gathered is analyzed and the results will be used as feedback to improve the design.

The relationship between the steps of Banathy’s instructional design and the steps of educational research and development is shown as below.

Figure 2.6 The Relationship of Banathy’s Instructional Design and Educational Research and Development

Objectives

Spoken cycleà Four stages

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33 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the methodology used in developing the design and some elements involved. As educational research and development is aimed to improve the quality of educational product (Borg and Gall: 772), therefore, this study adopt R & D cycle in its development. There were some steps used in this study, including collecting information, planning, developing the preliminary of product, interviewing participants, and product revision.

A. Collecting Information

This study was aimed to develop instructional materials on short functional texts. Therefore, a library research was conducted to get the theories about SchoolBased Curriculum, communicative competence, language model, literacy approach, and Banathy’s instructional design model; as well as finding short functional texts in a form of advertisement, announcement, and invitation.

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B. Planning

Planning is needed in designing the model of instructional materials. It gives an outline on what to do and what are the important materials for the unit.

The figure of planning the unit in this study is shown below:

Figure 3.1 The Planning of the Instructional Materials

1. Stating the Objectives

After completing the review of literature, the first thing to do was stating the objectives. As there were two cycles in the unit, the objectives of each cycle should be clearly stated. The spoken cycle would relate to listening and speaking skills, while the written cycle would relate to reading and writing skills.

Suitable Text

Objective of Spoken Cycle

Objective of Written Cycle

Appropriate Exercises Related Knowledge Mapping

Stating Objectives

Designing the Instructional materials Planning

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Table 3.1 The objectives of the Instructional Materials

Cycles _Objectives

Spoken Cycle

1. Listening

The students are able to:

1.1. Comprehend and respond the meaning of short functional texts in any discourses

2. Speaking

2.1. Express the meaning of short functional in any discourses

Written Cycle

3. Reading

3.1. Comprehend and respond the meaning of simple and short functional text in any discourses 4. Writing

4.1. Express the meaning of simple and short functional text accurately, fluently and grammatically correct in any discourses

2. Mapping

Some elements in designing the unit need to be mapped, including materials finding and editing. The elements mapped were the exercise, suitable short functional texts, and related knowledge.

a. Mapping the exercise

There were two kinds of exercise; individual and group exercise. b. Mapping the suitable texts

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English advertisement, announcement, and invitation in newspaper, magazines, and internet. Meanwhile, the audio scripts were created. c. Mapping the related knowledge

The knowledge included generic structure and language features of short functional texts in a form of advertisements, announcement, and invitation, gambits in responding invitation, kinds of advertisement and announcement, etc.

C. Developing the Preliminary Form of Product

There were four important elements in developing the preliminary form of product. The product here was the instructional materials. The elements were syllabus, learning program plan, and the developing of instructional materials on short functional texts.

The following figure shows how the instructional materials were developed.

Figure 3.2 The Development of Instructional Materials Spoken

Cycle Written Cycle

Four stages Learning Program Plans

Syllabus

Instructional materials on short functional

texts Four

stages

Exercises Designing

the Instructional

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1. Syllabus

Syllabus is important in teaching that it gives clarification of materials will be given, in order to achieve the competency standard and basic competency. According to the guideline of SchoolBased Curriculum (Depdiknas, 2006), there are eight components which are interrelated. They are competency standard, basic competence, subject matters, indicator, learning activities, assessment, time allocation, and sources.

2. Learning Program Plan

It is important for the teacher to make learning program plan before teaching. This learning program plan describes the procedure and organization of teaching learning activities to achieve the basic competence. Through this plan, teachers are helped in conducting teaching learning activities. There should be at least five components including learning purposes, subject matters, methods, reference, and assessment. This learning program plan is also considered as a guideline in designing the instructional materials.

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Each stage stated above will consist of exercises which help students improve their skills from dependent into independent performance. The exercises designed based on the stages determined. Those cycles and stages were applied

D. Interviewing Participants

The interview were conducted to get supplementary data in order to find out whether the materials designed had been suitable to be implemented in teaching learning activities or not. The information would be the consideration in improving the instructional materials on short functional texts. Thus, three teachers were chosen to be the evaluators. They were three English teachers of Senior High School Students who had experienced using short functional texts in teaching in the classroom, especially advertisement announcement, and invitation texts.

Table 3.2 The description of the evaluators

No. Evaluator Place of Work

Teaching experience (in year) 15 610 >10

1. Teacher V SMAK Sang Timur Yk ü

2. Teacher Y SMA PL Yk ü

3. Teacher R SMA PL Yk ü

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their own words. The questions were divided into two parts, spoken and written cycle, in order to ease the interview process. They are:

a. Questions for spoken cycle

1) Are the designed materials of the spoken cycle suitable with the demand of SchoolBased Curriculum?

2) Has the unit presented appropriate exercises which were developed from the simplest and the easiest exercise into the more complex and difficult exercises?

3) Are the exercises in the four stages in the spoken cycle interconnected with each other?

4) Are the exercises in the spoken cycle provided with: a) efficient instructions?

b) communicative instructions?

5) Is the spoken cycle designed according to the proficiency of the students? 6) Can the spoken cycle encourage the students to communicate in English

actively?

7) Can the exercises in the spoken cycle help the students in mastering the life skills required by spoken cycle (listening and speaking)?

8) What are your suggestions for the improvement of spoken cycle?

b. Questions for written cycle

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2) Does the unit present appropriate exercises which are developed from the simplest and the easiest exercise into the more complex and difficult exercises?

3) Are the exercises in the four stages in the written cycle interconnected with each other?

4) Are the exercises in the written cycle provided with: a) efficient instructions?

b) communicative instructions?

5) Is the written cycle suitable with the proficiency of the students?

6) Can the written cycle encourage the students to be able to write in English fluently?

7) Can the exercises in the written cycle help the students in mastering the life skills required by written cycle (reading and writing)?

8) What are your suggestions for the improvement of written cycle?

E. Product Revision

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41 CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter discussed the proposed model of instructional materials as the finding of the study, and the accountability of the proposed model of instructional materials on short functional texts.

A. The Proposed Model of Instructional Materials

The findings of this study were eight units of instructional materials on short functional texts for senior high school students grade X (Appendix 5). The first unit entitled “Go go Gadget” was the unit which evaluated by three teachers through interview. After some revisions and improvements had been done, the unit was used as a model in designing the other units. The whole units of instructional materials were presented in appendix 5.

B. The Accountability of the Proposed Instructional Materials on Short Functional Texts

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1. Internal Accountability

The unit of the designed materials was divided into two cycles. They were spoken cycle and written cycle. Each cycle consisted of four stages that were building knowledge of the field, modeling and deconstructing of text, joint construction of the text, and independent construction of the text. The cycles were developed based on the objectives stated in the SchoolBased Curriculum.

a. Spoken Cycle

The spoken cycle emphasized on speaking and listening skills. It divided into four stages. They were building knowledge of the field, modeling and deconstructing of the text, joint construction of the text, and independent construction of the text. In this stage students were involved in some activities in a form of dialogues and monologues. The students’ assessment was obtained from their construction of dialogues and monologues, as they meet the objectives of the cycle.

Table 4.1 The Objectives of the Spoken Cycle

Cycle Objectives

Spoken Cycle

1. Listening

Students are able to comprehend and respond the meaning of short functional text in any discourses

2. Speaking

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b. Written Cycle

The written cycle focused on the written short functional text construction. To evaluate the students’ learning, at the end of this cycle, the students were expected to be able to construct written short functional text.

Table 4.2 The Objectives of the Written Cycle

Cycle Objectives

Written Cycle

1. Reading

Students are able to comprehend and respond the meaning of short functional text in any discourses

2. Writing

Students are able to express the meaning of short functional text in a form of written texts

Moreover, there were eight units presented as the final product of the study. Since each unit consists of two cycles and four stages in each as stated previously, therefore, the accountability of one unit is similar to others. There were four sections in each unit that reflect the stages. They were:

1) Lead in reflects the stage of building knowledge of the field.

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The accountability of the two sections were presented as follows. Spoken Cycle

1) Lead in

There were some exercises which aimed to improve the students’ vocabulary about the topic. The exercises covered completing dialogue, comprehension questions, and crossword. Those exercises were intended to help the students find the topic of the text discussed in the unit designed. In the exercises, some terms on the topic were introduced to activate the students’ background knowledge.

2) Knowing Deeper

In this section the students learned the model of certain functional text, as well as its generic structure. The exercises covered comprehension question, which aimed to find the main idea of the text. Moreover, the students also learned the language features and terms usually used in certain topic. Furthermore, exercises on text deconstruction were presented to help the students construct a text on the next stage.

3) Walking Together