CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2. 1 Review of Related Literature
These are some references related to translation shifts as so as to support this analysis.
Bonaedy (2007) in Pergeseran Bentuk pada Penerjemahan Frase Nominal Bahasa Perancis ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia. The thesis Discusses about shifts in France novel
“L’Ingnu” created by Voltaire translated into Bahasa Indonesia by Ida Sundari Husen as
“Si Lugu”. The theory which used in the thesis is Nida & Taber theory of translation in the theory and practice of translation, Shift by Catford in Linguistic theory of translation and Noun Phrases theory in France language by Jean Louis Chiss, Jacques Filliolet, & Dominic Mainueneau in Linguistique Francaise Initiation a La Problematique Structurale: Syntaxe, Communication, Poetique. From the analysis, the writer found in noun phrases from France Language into Bahasa Indonesia occurs in Class shift, Unit shift and Structure shift.
Simanjuntak (2011), “an Analysis of Word Shifts in Sherlock Holmes' Movie Subtitle”. This thesis analyzes the shift word (word-shifts) that occurs in the subtitling of Sherlock Holmes movie. This analysis focused to find the shift of the word (word-shifts) to another level in the subtitle from English into Indonesian. The theory is used to identify
the shift is a theory which stated by Catford 1965 that shift happening in language units in any appropriate level. From the analysis that has been done, found 130 with 3 types of Source Language (SL) and Target Language (TL).
Management Practice and Avoidance, Mitigation and Management of Human-Orangutan Conflict in and Around Oil Palm Plantation” in Bahasa Indonesia, discusses one of the subs category shifts, namely functional shifts. She comes to a conclusion that shifts can be found in any kinds of translation.
2.2. Translation
2.2.1 Definition of Translation
In universal point of view, translation is a matter of transferring something from one language to another language.
However, translation is not merely about transferring message or something, and Catford (1969:20) clarifies that translation deals with equivalence issue. “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in
another language (TL)”.
Making an equivalent translation both in meaning and structure seems impossible. Keeping the structure equal will make the translation too literal. Meanwhile to make an equivalent meaning means we have to re-adjust or reconstruct the structure. Furthermore,
Translation with an equal structure is useless without equivalent meaning. Larson (1984:3)
supporting Catford‟s theory, states that translation means transferring the meaning of the source language into receptor language. Moreover, Newmark in Machalli (2009:25) give
more briefly statement about meaning in translation, he says “rendering the meaning of a
text in to another language in the way the author intended the text”.
Moreover, translation also deals with culture aspects. Professor in linguistic and literature Harimurti Kridalaksana (1983:128) on his book, he states that translation is transferring message among cultures or among languages in grammatical and lexical point by preserving the message, effect or structure as possible as it can be. In his book, he
mungkin tetap dipertahankan”. In brief, he views translation as transferring message which across culture among languages
2.2.2. Functions of Translation
Basically, translation functions as communication tools. As Nida (1969:12) states,
“Translation means communication because it has three essential elements to form a
process of communication. The three essential elements are source, message, and receptor,
and these elements must be found in all communication activities”. In brief words, translation means inter-lingual communication by involving two different languages.
Moreover, Duff (1989: 5) says, “As a process of communication, translation functions as the medium „across the linguistic and cultural barriers‟ in conveying the
messages written in the foreign languages”. In other words, the function of translation is as a bridge to carry the messages (meanings) and get the same understanding among language.
2.2.3. Process of Translation
Nida and Taber (1969) in Munday (2001:40) divide the process of translating into
three stages system: 1) analysis of message in the SL; 2) transfer, and; 3) reconstruction of the transferred message in the TL. This process is described in the following figure.
A (Source Language) B (Receptor Language)
(Analysis) (Restructuring)
X (transfer) Y
From the diagram, we can see that the source language is analyzing the grammatical relationship and the meaning of words and its combination. Then it transferred the meaning from SL into TL. The Reconstruction phase is the phase where the translator rewrites or re-expresses the materials in such a way that the translation product is readable and acceptable in terms of rules and styles in the TL.
Furthermore, Nababan (2003:25) writes that “Proses penerjemahan terdiri atas tiga tahap, yaitu 1) analisis teks bahasa sumber (Bsu), 2) pengalihan pesan, 3 restrukturisasi.” The process of translation have three steps, those are 1) the analysis of the source language (SL), 2) transferring the message, 3) restructuring.
2.2.4. Types of Translation.
Catford (1965:21) formulates categories of translation into three parts, namely extent, levels, and rank of translation. Based on the extent, he categorizes translation into a full translation and a partial translation. Based on levels of translation, he classifies translator in terms of total and restricted translation whilst on the ranks there are bound and unbounded translation.
In the case of full translation, the whole text is submitted to the process of translation, namely each part of the SL text is submitted by text material. According to Catford (1965:21), text is any stretch of language, spoken or written, which is under
discussion and according to circumstances, a text may be a whole library of books, a single volume, a chapter, a paragraph, a sentence, a clause, etc. In contrast with full translation, a partial translation is some parts of the SL text are left un-translated. They are merely transferred to the target language text. In a literary translation, it is unusual for some SL lexical items to be treated that way.
Larson (1984:15) divided translation into two types, they are:
Source Language Text Target Language Text
Tell me, I am not in a cage now Beritahu aku, aku tidak berada didalam gua sekarang
2. Idiomatic translation is a meaning-based translation that makes ever effort to communicate the meaning of the source language text in the natural form of the receptor language. For example:
Source Language Text Target Language Text
Tell me, I am not in a cage now Ayo, beri aku semangat bahwa sekarang aku tidak terkurung.
Baker and Saldanha in divided translation into four types; literary translation, audiovisual translation, scientific translation and technical translation. http://books.google.co.id/books/about/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Translation_St.htmli d=eXsDckV5GuMC&redir_esc=y/ (Accessed on January 10th 2014)
1. Literary Translation
Literary translation is the translation of texts within the field of literature. Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ literary_translation/ (Accessed on January 10th 2014)
2. Audiovisual Translation
As Luyken (1991:153–165), Audiovisual Translation is the translation of any material in audio, visual or audiovisual format. The four major aspects that are included in this section are subtitling, dubbing, software localization and multimedia, and audio description.
Ghazzala (1995:75) define Scientific translation is mainly about translating terms in the field of scients and technology of all kinds, medicine, physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer sciences, etc from one language into another.
4. Technical Translation
Technical translation is a type of specialized translation involving the translation of documents produced by technical writers (owner's manuals, user guides, etc.), or more specifically, texts which relate to technological subject areas or texts which deal with the practical application of scientific and technological information. http:// en. wikipedia.org/wiki/ Technical_translation/ (Accessed on January 10th 2014)
2.3 Shifts
As stated by Catford in Venuti (2000 : 141), shifts are departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the source language (SL) to the target language (TL). He also classifies the shifts into two major types, namely level shift and category shift.
2.3.1 Level Shift
In brief, Catford in Venuti (2000 : 141) define level shift as a shift from a
grammatical unit in SL to a lexical unit in TL. For instance, in the case of English and Bahasa Indonesia, a grammatical unit in English (for example: affixes, noun, verb, and others) has a lexical unit in Bahasa Indonesia. The followings are the examples of level shift:
(a) Boni has sold his motorcycle.
(b) Boni sudah menjual sepeda motornya.
In sentence above, English auxiliary „has‟ comes together with past participle of
Indonesia.
2.3.2 Category Shift
The second types of shift, is category shift, it is referred to unbounded and rank-bound translation. Unbounded translation means that translation equivalences may occur between sentences, clauses, groups, words and morphemes. While the term rank-bound translation only to refer to those special cases where equivalence is limited to ranks below the sentence.
In the group of category shift, there are four shifts. They are structure-shifts, class-shifts, unit-class-shifts, and intra-system-shifts.
1. Structure-Shifts
Structure shift is about the changing of grammatical structure between the SL and the TL, because of the structure of English to Indonesian language is different. For example:
The form of the noun phrase of SL is Modifier-Head, while the form of the noun phrase of TL is Head-Modifier.
new car → mobil baru
Adj N N Adj
2. Class or Functional Shifts
In brief, Catford (1965) in Venuti (2000 : 145) views class-shifts as shifts occurred when the equivalent translation of a SL item is a component of a different class in TL. For instance:
a. medical student
Adj. N
N N
3. Unit-shifts
Unit shifts is about change of rank. In which the equivalent translation of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in the TL.
For example:
Shift from phrase to word
Excuse me → permisi
P W
4. Intra-system-shifts
The last shifts, intra-system-shifts, are the shifts occurring internally within the system of the language concerned. The system involves a selection of a non- corresponding word in the system of TL. An example of this is:
(a). a pair of scissors
N (+plural)
(b). sebuah gunting
N (singular)
It is obviously seen from the example above that though we have a corresponding
plural form of „scissors‟ (for example, through repetition of the word „gunting‟ in Bahasa Indonesia), system in Bahasa Indonesia needs the use of the singular form of „a pair”.
2.4 Five Units of Ranks in English
Halliday (1985) in Machali (1998:13) identifies five units representing ranks in English, namely sentence, clause, group (or phrase), word, and morpheme.
Sentence is a set of words expressing a statement, a question, or an order, usually containing a subject and a verb.
For example: I was sitting around my house when that truck hitting a tree. 2. Clause
Clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb, and forms a sentence or part of a sentence. If the clause could stand by itself, and form a complete sentence with punctuation, we call the clause an independent clause.
For example: I was sitting around my home
Dependent clauses have a subject doing a verb, but they have a subordinate conjunction placed in front of the clause. That subordinate conjunction means that the clause can't stand independently by itself and become a complete sentence. Instead, the dependent clause is dependent upon another clause--it can't make a complete sentence by itself, even though it has a subject doing a verb. For examples of dependent clauses
For example: When that truck hitting a tree
These clauses simply do not form complete thoughts or sentences by themselves, but the combination of independent and dependent clauses will make a complete sentence.
3. Group (Phrase)
A phrase is a small group of words that adds meaning to a word. In some cases, phrase is a group of words containing a certain meaning if they are used together. There are five kinds of phrase, namely noun phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, verb phrase, and prepositional phrase.
3.1). Noun phrase
In a noun phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about a noun.
Adj adj adj Noun
The example above is an illustration of noun phrase where a noun „motorcycle‟ is modified by three adjectives „big‟, „black‟, and „beauty‟.
3.2). Adjective phrase
Adjective phrase is the adjective in a group of words.
For example: these shoes is extremely expensive
Modifier Adjective
3.3). Adverb phrase
adverb which done by „a group of words‟. In the following sentences, the first sentence and the second sentence in a pair convey the same meaning but using adverb in the first sentence and adverb-phrase in the second sentence.
For example: He does his work carelessly.
He does his work without care.
3.4).Verb phrase.
a group of words including a verb and its complements, objects, or other modifiers that functions syntactically as a verb. Or briefly one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb. In English a verb phrase combines
with a noun or noun phrase acting as subject to form a simple sentence.
For example: big motorcycle running faster’.
In a prepositional phrase, one or more words work together to give information about time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of the phrase
For example: “behind the old building‟
Prepositional modifier noun
4. Word
unit of language, consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written representation, that functions as a principal carrier of meaning.
For example: Small 5. Morpheme
A meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word or a word element that can't be divided into smaller meaningful parts.
For example: Dogs
The word „Dogs‟ consists of two morphemes and one syllable; „Dog‟ to represent noun
and syllable „-s‟ to represent plural.
Those units of language are found in Bahasa Indonesia as well (Machali, 1998
:13). The recognition of their distribution, status, and meaning are not similar in Bahasa Indonesia.
2.5 Subtitle
people who cannot understand the spoken dialogue or who have accent recognition problems. http://en. Wikipedia. Org/wiki/subtitle/ (Accessed on January, 19th 2014; 04:39 PM).
2.5.1 Subtitle Rules
William (2009:7-10), Senior Content Producer BBC listed rules in making standard subtitle for movie screen:
1. Subtitles must be on screen for long enough to be read by a deaf or hard-of- hearing viewer who will also be trying to take in other visual information at the same time.
1. A short and familiar word or phrase - 1.12 to 2 seconds.
e.g.: Hello .
or: Excuse me.
2. Up to half a line - 2 to 2.12 seconds.
e.g.: Where do you live?
or: See you tomorrow.
3. One line - 2.12 to 3 seconds.
e.g.: How long will it take us to go home?
or: He's got a real headache.
4. One line and a little bit - 3.12 seconds.
e.g.: How long will it take Johanna to go
home?
5. Up to one and a half lines - 4 to 4.12 seconds.
e.g.: It is important to tell her about
6. Two lines - 5 to 6 seconds.
e.g.: I think it would be a very good idea
to keep dangerous dogs on a leash.
7. Two lines and a little bit - 6.12 seconds.
e.g.: How long will it take the whole cast
to come home by taxi to Duals, North
Dyfed?
8. Two and a half lines - 7 seconds.
e.g.: The best thing about going abroad is
that you don't have to put up with
the British weather . 9. Three lines - 7.12 to 8 seconds.
e.g.: What will the City do about the Tory
Government's humiliating defeat
in the House of Commons last night?
2. In both live and pre-recorded subtitling, timings are intended to be flexible. The
standard timings shown in the Appendix are intended to provide general guidelines.
3. It is crucial that subtitles are displayed for a sufficient length of time for viewers to read them. The subtitle presentation rate for pre-recorded programmes should not
normally exceed 140 words per minute. In exceptional circumstances, for example in the case of add-ons, the higher rate of 180 words per minute is permitted.
5. Lines should be broken at logical points. The ideal line-break will be at a piece of punctuation like a full stop, comma or dash. If the break has to be elsewhere in the sentence, avoid splitting the following parts of speech
6. Good line-breaks are extremely important because they make the process of reading and understanding far easier. However, it is not always possible to produce good line-breaks as well as well-edited text and good timing. Where these constraints are mutually exclusive, then well edited text and timing are more important than line-breaks.
