i
MINOR WORD FORMATION PROCESSES IN MICHAEL SCOTT’S THE ALCHEMYST: THE SECRET OF THE
IMMORTAL NICHOLAS FLAMEL NOVEL
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By Teddy Justisi
Student Number: 141214088
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
2018
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DEDICATION PAGE
“Imagination is more important than knowledge.
For knowledge is limited to all we know and understand, while imagination embraces the entire world, and all there ever will be to know and understand.”
Michael Scott, The Alchemyst
I dedicate this thesis to everyone who loves me
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vii ABSTRACT
Justisi, Teddy. (2018). Minor Word Formation Processes in Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel. Yogyakarta:
English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
The production of new words keeps increasing. Every language produces new words because of new inventions and changes. Many new words happen in novels as a product of creative writing. A novel uses new words because the writer needs the right words to illustrate the situation. This study intends to investigate the word formation processes in a novel. The novel that is used in this research is The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel.
There are two research questions addressed in this research. The first question is “which minor word formation processes are found in The Alchemyst:
The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel?” and the second question is
“What are the words in the novel that change their lexical categories through the word formation processes?”
This research used content analysis since this research analyzes the novel as the recorded material. In order to list the data, the researcher created seven tables. Each table represented each word formation process.
The researcher found 111 lexical items that were formed through cliticization, 33 lexical items that were formed through onomatopoeia, 20 lexical items that were formed through clipping, 10 lexical items that were formed through backformation, 7 lexical items that were formed by acronym, 7 lexical items that were formed through blending and 3 lexical items were formed through coinage. The researcher also found 9 words that changed their lexical categories through backformation processes.
In conclusion, there were seven minor word formation processes were found in the research. Among the processes, cliticization was the most frequently used. There were also three words that were formed through coinage and the words only existed in the novel. The words that changed their lexical categories were the words that were formed through backformation.
Keyword: Word formation processes, The Alchemyst The Secret of Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel, lexical category.
viii ABSTRAK
Justisi, Teddy. (2018). Minor Word-formation Processes in Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel. Yogyakarta:
Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Sanata Dharma University.
Produksi kata-kata baru terus meningkat. Setiap bahasa memiliki kata-kata baru karena penemuan dan perubahan baru. Banyak kata baru yang terjadi dalam novel karena novel termasuk sebuah produk tulisan kreatif. Sebuah novel menggunakan kata-kata baru karena penulis membutuhkan kata-kata yang tepat untuk mengilustrasikan situasi. Penelitian ini bermaksud untuk menyelidiki proses pembentukan kata dalam sebuah novel. Novel yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel.
Ada dua pertanyaan yang dibahas dalam penelitian ini. Pertanyaan pertama adalah “proses pembentukan kata minor apa yang ditemukan dalam novel The Alchemyst: The Secret of Immortal Nicholas Flamel?” dan pertanyaan kedua adalah “Apa kata-kata yang berubah kategori leksikalnya di dalam novel melalui proses pembentukan kata minor?"
Penelitian ini menggunakan analisis konten karena penelitian ini menganalisis novel sebagai rekaman materi. Untuk membuat daftar kata, peneliti membuat tujuh tabel. Setiap tabel mewakili setiap proses pembentukan kata.
Peneliti menemukan 111 item leksikal yang dibentuk melalui cliticization, 33 item leksikal yang dibentuk melalui onomatopoeia, 20 item leksikal yang dibentuk melalui clipping, 10 item leksikal yang dibentuk melalui backformation, 7 item leksikal yang dibentuk oleh acronym, 7 item leksikal yang dibentuk melalui blending dan 3 item leksikal yang dibentuk melalui coinage. Peneliti juga menemukan 9 kata yang berubah kategori leksikalnya melalui proses backformation.
Jadi disimpulkan bahwa ada tujuh proses pembentukan kata dalam penelitian ini. Dari semua proses, proses pembentukan kata yang sering digunakan adalah cliticization. Ada tiga kata baru yang dibentuk melalui coinage dan hanya ditemukan di novel. Kata-kata yang berubah leksikal kategorinya adalah kata yang dibentuk melalui backformation.
Kata kunci: Word formation processes, The Alchemyst The Secret of Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel, lexical category.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank my parents, Wahyanto Edinugroho and Wiwik Pujiastini, and my brother Andhika Justisia, for always supporting me during my study in English Language Education Study Program. Without their supports, I would never be here to finish this thesis.
Then, I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Priyatno Ardi S.Pd., M.Hum., for guiding and giving me a lot of suggestions during the process of finishing this thesis. His help was very important in finishing this thesis. I would also like to thank my academic advisor, Miss Monica Ella Harendita, M.Ed., for guiding me since my first semester.
I would like to thank all members of Class C of PBI 2014 for accepting me as one of their family members in Sanata Dharma University. I would also like to thank all of my friends who help me in my difficult times. Then, last but not least, I would like to thank everyone whose names cannot be mentioned one by one.
Teddy Justisi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ... i
APPROVAL PAGES ... Error! Bookmark not defined. DEDICATION PAGE ... iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... Error! Bookmark not defined. PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... Error! Bookmark not defined. ABSTRACT ... vii
ABSTRAK ... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...x
LIST OF TABLES ... xii
LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xiv
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...1
A. Research Background...1
B. Research Questions ...4
C. Research Significance ...4
D. Definition of Terms ...5
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...7
A. Theoretical Description ...7
1. Words, Morphemes, and Word Structure ...7
2. Affixation ...9
3. Minor Word Formation Processes ...10
4. Lexical Categories / Word Class ...14
5. Previous Studies on Minor Word Formation ...15
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B. Theoretical Framework ...16
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ...17
A. Research Method ...18
B. Research Object ...19
C. Instrument and Data Gathering Technique ...19
D. Data Analysis Technique ...20
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISSCUSION ...24
A. Minor Word Formation Processes in Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel ...24
1. Cliticization ...25
2. Onomatopoeia ...28
3. Clipping ...31
4. Backformation ...33
5. Blending ...34
6. Acronym ...35
7. Coinage ...36
B. Lexical Categories that Changed through Word Formation Processes ... 38
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...42
A. Conclusions ...43
B. Implications ...44
C. Recommendations ...45
REFERENCES ...46
APPENDICES ...48
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3.1 Word Formation Observation Form ...20
3.2 Words Formed through Cliticization ...21
3.3 Words Formed through Clipping ...21
3.4 Words Formed through Blends ...21
3.5 Words Formed through Backformation ...22
3.6 Words Formed through Onomatopoeia ...22
3.7 Words Formed through Acronym ...22
4.1 The Word Formation Processes Used in the Novel ...25
4.2 Example of Pronoun and Verb Cliticization Processes ...26
4.3 Example of Noun and Verb Cliticization ...27
4.4 Example of Verb and Adverb “not” Cliticization ...27
4.5 Example of the Words Formed through Onomatopoeia from the Novel ...29
4.6 The Example of Word Formed through Clipping ...32
4.7 The Words that are Formed through Acronym ...36
4.8 The Change of Lexical Categories through Backformation Process ...39
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Example of Prefixes and Suffixes ...9 4.1 Summary of Word Formation Processes ...28
xiv LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 List of Words Formed through Backformation ...49
Appendix 2 List of Words Formed through Coinage...50
Appendix 3 List of Words Formed through Acronym ...51
Appendix 4 List of Words Formed through Blending ...52
Appendix 5 List of Words Formed through Clipping ...53
Appendix 6 List of Words Formed through Cliticization ...54
Appendix 7 List of Words Formed through Onomatopoeia ...57
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the background and rationale for conducting this research. This chapter is divided into four sections, namely research background, research questions, research significance, and definition of terms.
A. Research Background
English is dynamic and it changes over time (Hosseinzadeh, 2014). As one of the elements of language, words keep increasing all the time. Wagner (2010) states that every language is in need of new words due to new inventions and changes. New words are formed in order to explain something new. Some of the new words are formed through word formation processes. For example, the word app is formed from application, the word wi-fi is formed from wireless and hi-fi, and the word SUV is formed from Sport Utility Vehicle. According to O'Grady and Archibald (2016), those words are formed by some processes, namely clipping, blends and acronym. The processes of forming those words are what called word formation processes.
Understanding the formation of a word could help people understand the meaning of the word itself. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2013) state that it is easy for people to understand the meaning of a word when they understand how a word is formed. Understanding the etymology of a word helps people to understand the meaning of the word.
People might encounter some new words while they are listening to a song, watching movies, reading a book or doing some conversations. Sometimes, the formation of the word is neglected by people. It is because people can understand the new words from the meaning of the words itself. As Aitchison (2003) says, human beings can recognize the meaning of the new words by inferring the context.
In this research, a novel is chosen as the object of the study. The words in a novel have no limitation. Novels use many words because the writer of the novel needs the right words to illustrate the situation. Novel is also a medium for people to express their ideas, thoughts and feelings. There are many possibilities that the words in the novel are formed by word formation processes. According to Jovanović (2003), there are many word formations especially conversion or zero- derivation in creative writing. Novels are one of creative writing products. Lieber (1992) also states that the productivity of word formation proceses mostly happens in the wrriten form rather than in spoken language.
The issues of word formation have caught researchers’ attention. Montero- Fleta (2011) discovers that there are different affixation processes in two scientific English registers, such as computer science and medicine. Lakshita (2014) discovered that there were six types out of eight types of word formation processes found in Carter Chambers’ utterance in The Bucket List movie script.
Another study by Liu and Liu (2014), they prove the diversity of word-formation processes of English netspeak neologism and the creativity of language in the online context.
In this research, the researcher intends to analyze the minor word formation processes in a novel titled “The Alchemyst: The Secret of Immortal Nicholas Flamel.” According to O'Grady and Archibald (2016), minor word formation processes are the word formations that are less frequently used. Wagner (2010) explains that the word formation processes that are commonly used to form a word in English language are inflection and derivation. In the 21st century, abbreviation, one of minor word formation processes, is used to create many new words (Wagner, 2010).
Many word formations are produced in creative writing (Jovanović , 2003). The title of the novel used in this study consists of an unfamiliar word, namely alchemyst. The word “Alchemyst” itself cannot be found in the dictionary.
It should be “Alchemist.” In the novel, it is explained that the word “Alchemyst”
is a nickname for the great alchemist, Nicholas Flamel.
Besides minor word formation processes, the change of lexical categories due to the word formation processes is also investigated in this research. It is important because lexical category carries the major component in a word.
According to O'Grady and Archibald (2016), in complex words, the roots typically belong to lexical categories, such as noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), or preposition (P).
This research can help English learners to learn about morphology and help the lecturer to teach about morphology. They can use the novel as a media to find a real example about minor word formation processes.
B. Research Questions
This research is going to answer two research questions.
1. Which minor word formation processes are found in The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel?
2. What are the words in the novel that change their lexical categories through the minor word formation processes?
C. Research Significance
This section identifies the contribution of the study. This study can be used for future researchers, English lecturers and English learners.
1. Future Researchers
The researcher hopes that this research can be useful for future researchers who are interested in conducting a study especially in morphology. This research can help the future researchers to analyze the word formation processes in another novel, document or another object. The future researchers can use the same method and theories as this research to analyze other objects.
2. English Lecturers
The researcher hopes that this research can help English lecturers in teaching linguistics. English lecturers can use the novel as a media to teach the students about linguistics. This study can help the lecturers to find more examples of word formation processes from the novel. Besides, this study can also help the students to understand more about linguistics.
3. English Learners
The researcher hopes that this research will help English learners to learn about minor word formation processes in morphology. They can use the novels as a media of learning morphology especially on minor word formation processes.
Hopefully, they can use it to find the real examples that may help them understand it easier.
D. Definition of Terms
This section defines key words that are used in the research in order to clarify the concept and avoid misunderstanding. This section is divided into two parts. The first part is to define the word formation processes and the second one is to define The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel.
1. Minor Word Formation Processes
Minor word formation processes are the word formation processes that is used less frequent. O’Grady and Archibald (2016) describe that there are eight minor word formation processes. The processes are cliticization, conversion, clipping, blending, backformation, acronyms, onomatopoeia, and coinage.
Meanwhile, Yule (2014) describes that there are borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, hypocorisms, backformation, conversion, coinage and acronym. In this research, the researcher follows the theory from O'Grady and Archibald (2016). However, the researcher did not analyze conversion. It is still controversial on determining whether the words are formed by conversion or not because conversion supports the idea of word forming rather than the idea of being syntactic form (Sahib, 2016).
2. The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel
The novel is the first novel of the six book fantasy fiction series The Secret of The Immortal Nicholas Flamel. It was written by Michael Scott and published in May 2007. The story is about the adventure of Nicholas Flamel, an alchemist who discovers a secret from the codex that makes him live forever. The researcher chooses the novel is because the novel consists of many words and it is one of creative writing product.
7 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the review of theories and previous studies related to the study. This chapter is divided into two main sections, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
In this section, the researcher discusses the theories related to morphology, such as words, morphemes, word structure and affixes. The researcher also compiles some theories about minor word formation processes, lexical categories and previous studies on minor word formation processes.
1. Words, Morphemes, and Word Structures
This sub section will explain the terms of words, morphemes, and word structure. Those three elements are important in the word formation processes.
a. Words
O’Grady and Archibald (2016) define a word as “the smallest free form found in language” (p.101). Arnoff and Fudeman (2011) also state that “word is the smallest unit of syntax” (p.35). They find that there are two types of word: a simple word and a complex word. Simple word is a word that cannot be divided into smaller part and complex word is a word that contains two or more morphemes. The examples of simple word are “and,” “act” and “rain.” All of those words consist of one morpheme. The examples of complex words are
“action” and “hunters.” The word “action” consists of two morphemes, which is why it is categorized as a complex word. According to Bauer (1983), a word is a free morpheme without any inflection processes. For example, a person reads a sentence “This hunter shoots big game” and he looks for the word shoots in dictionary. The word will be “shoot”. When the word “shoot” is discussed in this sense, Bauer (1983) explains that the word “shoot“ happens to be the key member of inflectional paradigm in which shoots occurs.
b. Morphemes
O’Grady and Archibald (2016) define a morpheme as “the most important component of word structure. Morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning of function” (p.101). There are two types of morpheme, namely free morpheme and bound morpheme. Free morpheme is a morpheme that can be a word by itself. The examples of free morpheme are the word “chair,” “car,” and “girl.” The bound morpheme is a morpheme that must be attached to another element such as the morpheme “-s” in plural form, “-ed” in ruined, and “-er” in hunter. Moreover, Arnoff and Fudeman (2011) also define morphemes as the smallest linguistic pieces with a gramatical function and cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts such as the “-ed” from “looked” (p.2).
c. Word Structure
Every word has its own word structure. According to O’Grady and Archibald (2016), complex words typically consist of a root morpheme and one or more affixes. The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots typically belong to a lexical category, such as
noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), or preposition (P). On the other hand, affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes. For example, the word “teach” (V) becomes “teacher” (N) that means ‘one who teaches.’ The affix “–er” is a bound morpheme and the word “teach” is the root. Moreover, Bauer (1983) explains that a bound morpheme can only occur if it is attached to other morphs.
2. Affixation
O’Grady and Archibald (2016) define affixation as “a process of adding an affix” (p.105). Moreover, Plag (2002) says that affixation is a process that attaches affix to the base. This is an extremely common morphological process in language. They divide the affix into two types of affix, namely prefix and suffix.
They define prefix as an affix that is attached to the front of its base and suffix is an affix that is attached to the end of its base. Arnoff and Fudeman (2011) also describe that affix is attached to the stem (p.3). Affixes that go before stem are prefix such as un- and those that go after the stem are suffix such as –ment.
Figure 2.1 Example of prefixes and suffixes Notes
N : noun Af : affix
3. Minor Word Formation Processes
Minor word formation processes are the word formation processes other than derivation process and inflection process. According to O'Grady and Archibald (2016), there are eight minor word formation processes. There are cliticization, conversion, clipping, blending, backformation, acronyms, onomatopoeia, and coinage. Arnoff and Fudeman (2011) argue that there are only four word formations other than derivational process. They are blending, acronym, clipping, and backformation. Meanwhile, Yule (2014) describes that there are borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, hypocorisms, backformation, conversion, coinage and acronym. However, the researcher follows the theory from O'Grady and Archibald (2016) who say that there are eight minor word formation processes, namely cliticization, onomatopoeia, clipping, conversion, blending, backformation, acronym, and coinage.
a) Cliticization
O’Grady and Archibald (2016) define clitics as “some morphemes behave like words in terms of their meaning and function but unable to stand alone as independent forms for phonological reasons” (p. 122). A process of attaching clitics to a word is called cliticization. In cliticization, there are two types of clitics: enclitics and proclitic. O’Grady and Archibald (2016) state that “enclitics are clitics that attach to the end of their host while proclitic are clitics that attach to the beginning of their host” (p.122). The example of enclitics is ‘m in I’m (I am), ‘ll in you’ll (you will), ‘ve in they’ve (they have), and ‘d in he’d (he had or he would). There is also clitic ‘s which explains about possession (Byrd & Mintz,
2010). The example of clitic ‘s is in the phrase “The student's assignment.” The clitic ‘s from the example explains that the assignment belongs to the student.
b) Conversion
According to O’Grady and Archibald (2016), conversion or zero derivation is “a process that assigns an already existing word to a new syntactic category. Even though it does not add an affix, conversion is often considered to be a type of derivation because of the change in category and meaning that it brings about” (p.122). For example, the word “finger” is a noun. It can be changed into a verb with different meaning. If it is a verb, the word “finger” means to inform on (someone) to the police. Velasco (2009) also explains that “conversion is the use of form which regarded as being basically of one from class as though it were a member of a different form class, without any change of form” (p.1165).
c) Clipping
O’Grady and Archibald (2016) define clipping as a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables. In other word, clipping is often used to make a long word become simpler and shorter. For example, the word “phone” is clipped from “telephone” and “comfy” is clipped from
“comfortable.” According to Yule (2014), some of the most common products of clipping are names such as Lis, Al, Ed and Mike. Moreover, Arnoff and Fudeman (2011) also state that clipping mostly produce the nickname of a person.
d) Blending
Yule (2014) defines blending as “the combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term” (p.53). Moreover, Arnoff and Fudeman (2011) also define blending as “a word that is formed by combining parts of more than one word” (p.119), for example brunch from breakfast and lunch, motel, from motor and hotel. In additional, Liu and Liu (2014) define blend as “the combination of clipping and compounding in which new words are created by the overlap of words or fragments of existing words” (p.25). They classify blends into three types. The first one is head + word. For example, the word emotag is blending from head of the word emotion with complete word tag. The second type is head + tail, as it is found in the word wedsite. It is the combination from the head of the word wedding and tail of the word website. The last type is word + tail blending.
For example, the word viewser is fromed from the head word viewer and the tail of the word user.
e) Backformation
According to O'Grady and Archibald (2016), backformation is “a process of removing a real or supposed affix of a word in order to create a new one”
(p.124). Some examples of noun to verb backformation are “donate from donation, resurrect from resurrection, enthuse from enthusiasm, and orient from orientation.” In addition, Yule (2014) explains that backformation is a word of one type (usually a noun) that is reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb) (p.54). For example, the noun television come first into uses and then verb televise is created from it.
f) Acronyms and Initialisms
O'Grady and Archibald (2016) define acronyms as “words which are formed by taking the initial letters of (some or all) the words in a phrase or title and pronouncing them as a word” (p.126). Moreover, Yule (2014) also states that
“acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words”
(p.56). For example, the name of the computer language BASIC is an acronym for
“Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.” Another example is the word YOLO which is acronym for “You Only Live Once.”
g) Onomatopoeia
O'Grady and Archibald (2016) define onomatopoeia as the words which are created to represent the name of a thing’s sound. The examples of onomatopoeia in English are the word meow, buzz, hiss, and sizzle. Since it is a copy of noises, onomatopoeic words are different from one language with other languages. For example, the sound of cat in English is meow meanwhile in Japanese is nyaa. Moreover, Yule (2014) explains that onomatopoeia is the words that sound similar to the noises such as bang, boom, screech and bow-wow.
h) Coinage
According to O'Grady and Archibald (2016), coinage is a word formation process that creates a word from a scratch. This process is common in the case of product names, such as kodak, dacron, orlon, and teflon.Moreover, Yule (2014) explains that coinage is the invention and general use of totally new terms.
Furthermore, Bauer (2003) describes that a new word is coined for the particular occasion.
A coinage that creates a new word based on name of a person or a place called eponyms (Yule, 2014). One of the examples of eponyms is teddy bear, derived from US president Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt.
4. Lexical Categories
O'Grady and Archibald (2016) explain that there are four most studied syntactic categories, namely noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), and preposition (P). These elements are often called as lexical categories (p.140).
a. Noun (N)
According to O'Grady and Archibald (2016), noun is usually a name of entities (people and things), the individual such as Teddy, Harry, and an object such as book, table, and computer. In other word, nouns typically refer to people and things. Kroeger (2005) also explains that noun is a name of a person, place, or thing. Furthermore, Adams (2013) explains that noun has the ability to take the plural and genitive inflectional, to take certain characteristic suffixes like -er, - ness, -ism, to be preceded by determiners, like a, the, this, my, to act as the subject or the object of a sentence (p.17).
b. Verb (V)
O'Grady and Archibald (2016) state that verbs characteristically designate action (run, jump), sensation (feel, hurt), and states (be, remain) (p.141). Some of the verb are also created from noun for example the word “plate” as a verb mean to serve or arrange food on a plate. According to Kroeger (2005), there are one
more characteristic of a verb other than action, sensation, and state. An event is also considered as a verb.
c. Adjective
O'Grady and Archibald (2016) state that an adjective function is to designate a property or attribute of entities denoted by nouns (p.142). For example, when we say “that tall building,” it means the word tall is an attribute of the word “building.” The word tall in front of the word building explain that the building has more than average height.
d. Preposition
O'Grady and Archibald (2016) explain that “prepositions generally encode spatial relations, for example the word in, under, and near” (p.103). In other word, preposition usually describes the position of something, the time when something happens, and the way in something is done. For example, the word “under” in the sentence “my phone is under my pillow” describes the position of something.
5. Previous Studies on Minor Word Formation Processes
Minor word formation has been studied by previous researchers. First, Montero-Fleta (2011) conducted a study about the suffixes in scientific English.
She examined the productivity of the suffixes in English register. The data were from computer science corpus, medicine corpus and British national corpus (BNC). She examined the productivity of the suffixes in each register, types, tokens and hapaxes ratio were used. The results confirmed that there was a
difference in the behavior of some suffixes across scientific registers and confirm that morphological productivity is subject to register variation.
Another study is from Liu and Liu (2014). They analyzed the word- formation of English Netspeak Neologism. They proved the diversity of word- formation processes of English netspeak neologism and language in the online context. They analyzed 210 neologisms under the Internet category posted by www.wordspy.com. The result of their research was that the most frequent word formation processes that were used by netizen was compounding. There was 93.5% noun compound that was produced by the netizen.
The other study is from Nanda, Rosa and Ardi (2012) which discusses the word formation processes that are used in Twilight novel by Stephanie Meyer and Twilight movie script written by Melissa Rosenberg. The word formation processes that they analyzed were cliticization, internal change, suppletion, reduplication, conversion, clipping, blending, backformation, acronym, onomatopoeia, and coinage. They found that the most frequently used word formation in the novel was suppletion. There are 3589 words formed through suppletion. However, the word formation that was most frequently used in the script was cliticization. There are 465 words formed through cliticization.
B. Theoretical Framework
There are two research questions in this study which aim to investigate the minor word formation which are found in Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel and the words that change of their
lexical categories through the word formation processes in novel. The researcher uses the theory from O'Grady and Archibald (2016) that is supported by theory from Yule (2014) and Arnoff and Fudeman (2011). All of the theories are about minor word formation processes.
In order to answer the first research question, the researcher uses the theory from O'Grady and Archibald (2016). In the theory, they classify eight minor word formation processes. The processes are cliticization, conversion, clipping, blend, backformation, acronyms, onomatopoeia and coinage or word manufacture. It is also supported by the theories from Yule (2014) and Arnoff and Fudeman (2011). However, conversion is not included in this research. The researcher attempts to analyze the minor word formations that are used in Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel and identify which minor word formation is frequently used in the novel.
To answer the second question, the researcher uses the theory about lexical categories from O'Grady and Archibald (2016). The words that are created through the word formation processes might change their lexical categories. In order to understand the changes, the researcher uses theories from O'Grady and Archibald (2016) to determine the lexical categories of the formed words and the word origin. The researcher also uses the theories about minor word formation from Yule (2014) to identify the change of the words and identify which word formation processes that change the lexical categories of the words from the novel.
18 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the method that is used in this research. This part consists of research method, research object, instrument and data gathering technique, and data analysis technique.
A. Research Method
To conduct this research, the researcher used content analysis. Ary, Jacobs, and Sorensen (2010) explain that “content analysis focuses on analyzing and interpreting recorded material to learn about human behavior” (p.29).
Furthermore, they state that “the material may be public records, textbooks, letters, films, tapes, diaries, reports, or other documents” (p.29). This research described the minor word formation processes occurring in the The Alchemyst:
The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel. This research used content analysis since it focused on analyzing the novel as the recorded material.
Fraenkel, Wallen, and Hyun (2012) define content analysis as “a technique that enables researchers to study human behavior in indirect way, through analysis their communications –many things which are produced by human beings”
(p.478). This research analyzed the processes to form the words in the novels.
This research analyzed human communication that was produced in the written form.
B. Research Object
The researcher used The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel as the main data source to conduct this research. The novel was the first novel of the six book fantasy fiction series The Secret of The Immortal Nicholas Flamel. The novel was published in May 2007 by Random House. The novel consists of 375 pages. The story is about an Alchemyst, Nicholas Flamel, who discovers the secret of ancient magic and become an immortal being. The story begins when his secret is stolen and his wife is kidnapped.
C. Instrument and Data Gathering Technique
Ary, Jacobs, and Sorensen (2010) define that content analysis focuses on analyzing the recorded material. The novels entitled The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel was used as the object of this research.
Before the novel was chosen as the object, the researcher read several novels to consider a decent novel. After the researcher found that novel, the researcher read it.
To collect the data the researcher searched some examples of the words which are formed by the word formation processes discussed from any sources, such as in books and internet especially the examples of backformation. Then, the researcher crosschecked the examples of the words by looking the dictionary.
After that, the researcher looked for the words in the novel and then listed the words. Other word formation processes, such as clitics, clipping, acronym, onomatopoeia, blending and coinage, could be found while reading the novel.
The researcher used a table to list the word formation while reading the novel. Next, the researcher used the example of the word that was found from other sources and looked for the words in the novel and listed them in the table.
The table consisted of a column to list the word in the novel and another column that indicate the types of minor word formation based on O’Grady and Archibald (2016) and Arnoff and Fudeman (2011).
Table 3.1 Word Formation
No
Words from The Alchemyst: The Secret
of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel
Types of word formation
Cl Cp Bl Bf A O Co
Note
Cl : Cliticization Cp : Clipping Bl : Blending Bf : Backformation
A : Acronym O : Onomatopoeia Co : Coinage
The words that were found in the novel were listed in the second column and then the researcher checked one of the types of word formations of the word.
After the words were listed, the researcher crosschecked the words by checking the etymology of the words in two dictionaries. The researcher used two online dictionaries as the references, namely Online Etymology Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary.
D. Data Analysis Technique
After the researcher put the words which were formed through seven minor word formation processes, the researcher analyzed the words by finding the
related information of each process. For example, the researcher found the lexical category of the formed word and its word origins and gave the meaning of the word based on the dictionary. The researcher used the classification of minor word formation processes that was proposed by O’Grady and Archibald (2016).
The researcher created six tables to list the data based on the word formation processes conducted in the research, namely cliticization, clipping, blends, backformation, acronym, onomatopoeia.
Table 3.2 Words Formed through Cliticization
Formed words Words origin
Table 3.2 presents the words formed through cliticization in The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel. The researcher made columns consisted of the formed words and its word origin.
Table 3.3 Words Formed through Clipping
Formed words Word Origin
Table 3.3 presents the words formed through clipping in the novel. For clipping, the researcher made two columns. The first column will represent the formed words and the second column will represent its word origin.
Table 3.4 Words Formed through Blends
Formed words Word Origin
Table 3.4 shows the words formed through blends in the novel. The researcher put the words that was found in the novel into the first column and the second column was for its word origin. In blending, the word origin will be two words.
Table 3.5 Words Formed through Backformation
Formed words Word Origin
Words Lexical categories Words Lexical categories
Table 3.5 displays the words formed through back-formation in the novel.
To list the words, the researcher created the columns to list the word origin, formed words and lexical category in each word.
Table 3.6 Words Formed through Onomatopoeia
Root of formed words Onomatopoeic Sounds Lexical categories
Table 3.6 presents the words that were formed through onomatopoeia. The researchers made two columns to list the words that was formed by onomatopoeia.
The first column was the words that were found in the novel and the second column was the meaning of the sound. The last column was the lexical categories of the word.
Table 3.7 Words formed through Acronym
Formed words Word Origin
Table 3.7 presents the words that were formed through acronym. In acronym, the table is the same as the blending. It consisted of two columns. The first column is for the formed words and the second column is for its word origin.
After all the data were classified, the researcher used two dictionaries to crosscheck the meaning, lexical category and etymology of the words. The first is Online Etymology Dictionary which explains about the etymology of the word.
The second is Oxford English Dictionary which explains the definition, etymology and the lexical categories of the words. After that, the researcher validated all the data with one of the lecturers in Sanata Dharma University,Barli Bram M.Ed., Ph.D. He was chosen as the validator because he was an expert in morphology and he conducted a study on major total conversion in English (see Bram, 2011).
24
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents and discusses the results of the research on the minor word formation processes and the changes of lexical categories in Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel.
A. Minor Word Formation Processes in Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst:
The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel
Minor word formation processes are the processes of forming new words, other than derivation and inflection processes. In this research, the researcher classified the minor word formation processes in the Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel. The researcher used O'Grady and Archibald’s (2016) classification of word formation processes.
They describe that there are eight processes, namely cliticization, conversion, onomatopoeia, clipping, backformation, blending, acronym, and coinage.
Among the eight processes, the researcher found seven word formation processes that were used to form the words in the novel. The researcher found 111 lexical items (58.11%) that were formed through cliticization, 33 lexical items (17.27%) that were formed through onomatopoeia, 20 lexical items (10.47%) that were formed through clipping, 10 lexical items (5.23%) that were formed through backformation, 7 lexical items (3.66%) that were formed through acronym, 7 lexical items (3.66%) that were formed through blending and 3 lexical items
(1.57%) that were formed through coinage. Table 4.1 shows the summary of word formation processes in the novel.
Table 4.1 The Word Formation Processes Used in the Novel Word Formation Frequency Percentage Example of word
cliticization 111 58.11 % • Alchemyst’s
• Josh’s
onomatopoeia 33 17.27 % • dripping
• fizzing
• hissing
clipping 20 10.47 % • phone from
telephone
• gas from gasoline
backformation 10 5.23 % • kidnap from
kidnapper
• injure from injury
acronym 7 3.66 % • FOAF
• SUV
blending 7 3.66 % • internet
• smashed
coinage 3 1.57 % • Alchemyst
• humani
total 191 100 %
1. Cliticization
Cliticization is a process of attaching a morpheme to a word (O'Grady &
Archibald, 2016). In English, almost all pronouns and nouns can be attached to modals or auxiliary verbs. Based on the finding, there were 111 (58.11%) cliticization processes that occurred in the novel. These findings were in a line with Nanda, Rosa, and Ardi (2012) who found that cliticization was the most frequent word formation in a movie script.
Cliticization happens in several pronouns in the novel such as I, you, we, they, he, she, it, anyone, and everyone. Most of the pronouns were attached to
modals (will and would), auxiliary verbs (be and have), and linking verbs (is, am, and are). Table 4.2 showed some simple pronouns that are attached by modals, auxiliary verb, and linking verbs in the novels.
Table 4.2 Example of Pronoun and Verb Cliticization Processes Pronoun Verb Cliticization Pronoun Verb Cliticization
You
will you'll
she will she'll
are You're Is she's
have You've
we are we're
I
will I'll have we've
am I'm
they would they'd
would I'd are they're
Will he'll
it will it'll
Have I've Is it's
he
Is he's
would he'd would she'd
In addition to pronoun-verb cliticization, there were many cliticization processes that explained about possession. According to Byrd and Mintz (2010), clitic ‘s that is attached in a word is to indicate the posession. Almost all of the cliticization in the novel explained about possessiveness with a clitic “‘s”. The example is as follows.
Excerpt 1:
The Alchemyst’s thin face was bright red … (p.246)
The word “Alchemyst’s” in Excerpt 1 was a word that was formed from the noun
“Alchemyst” and clitic “’s” which explained the thin face belonged to the Alchemyst. Clitics ‘s in the word alchemyst explain about possession (Byrd and Mintz, 2010).
Table 4.3 Example of Noun and Clitic ‘s Noun Clitic Cliticization
Josh ‘s Josh’s
water ‘s water’s
Excalibur ‘s Excalibur’s
men ‘s men’s
Besides noun-clitic and pronoun-verbs, there was also cliticization to form the negative meaning. Table 4.4 shows the example of modal verbs and auxiliary verbs with adverb “not” to form the negative meaning.
Table 4.4 Example of Verb and Adverb “not” Cliticization Verb Adverb Cliticization
are
not
aren't
can can't
could couldn't
did didn't
does doesn't
do don't
had hadn't
have haven't
was wasn't
will won't
is isn't
Overall, the cliticization process was the most frequent process to form the words in Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel.
Figure 4.1 Summary of Word Formation Processes
Figure 4.1 showed the word formation processes that were found in the novel. One hundred and eleven words (58.11%) were formed through cliticization.
Cliticization was easy to be formed and found in the novel. It was easy to be found because there were many clitics that were used by the character in the novel while they were talking to each other. It illustrated their daily communication.
According Nanda, Rosa, and Ardi (2012), cliticization is usually used by people in their daily communication.
2. Onomatopoeia
Another word formation process that was frequently used to form the words in Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel was onomatopoeia. O'Grady and Archibald (2016) define onomatopoeic words as the words which are created to represent the name of a sound.
5.24%
3.66%
10.47%
3.66%
58.12%
17.28%
1.57%
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Back-formation Blending Clipping Acronym Cliticization Onomatopoeia Coinage
Word Formation Processes
The author of the novel used the words that were formed through onomatopoeia in order to explain the situation that happened in the novel especially to describe the sound that happened in the story. It occurred in the following sentence:
Excerpt 2:
It shot, fizzing and hissing, along the springs and into the metal body of the car (p.90)
The words “fizzing” and “hissing” in Excerpt 2 were described the sounds that happened in the story. The word “fizzing” means producing bubbles of gas (“fizz,”
2017) and make a hissing sound while the words “hissing” means a sharp sibilant sound as of the letter s (“hiss,” 2017). Table 4.5 shows some examples of words that were available in the novel.
Table 4.5 Example of the Words Formed through Onomatopoeia from the Novel
Formed word Page Onomatopoeic Sounds LC
crunching 150 Making a loud but muffled grinding sound. Verb cracking 191 A sudden sharp or explosive noise. Verb Fizzing 90 produce bubbles of gas and make a hissing sound Verb Hissing 90 Make a sharp sibilant sound as of the letter s Verb
grumbling 267 Make a low rumbling sound Verb
Another example from the novel that used onomatopoeia to explain the situation occurred in the following sentence:
Excerpt 3:
…Dee followed his silent guide, bones crunching and crackling with every step. (p.191)
The word “crunching” and “crackling” in Excerpt 3 were the examples of onomatopoeia. Those words described the sound that happened. The base word
“crunch” from the word “crunching” meant a loud but muffled grinding sound
and the base word “crack” from “cracking” means a sharp or explosive noise.
Another example occurred in the following sentence:
Excerpt 4:
The sound was like that of an animal in pain: beginning as a deep grumbling... (p. 267)
From Excerpt 4, the author of the novel tried to explain the sound that happened in the novel even though the first sound in the first sentence in Excerpt 4 was explained briefly rather than using onomatopoeia. However, it was supported with the word “grumbling” which was an onomatopoeia.
The word that was formed through onomatopoeia can be used in some lexical categories. It also can be used as a noun. The example of the word that was formed by onomatopoeia and used as noun was the word “click” in this following sentence:
Excerpt 5:
There was a click, and the shelving swung outward, revealing a set of steps hidden behind it (p.13).
The word “click” in Excerpt 5 means “a short, sharp sound as of a switch being operated or of two hard objects coming smartly into contact” (“click,” 2017). The word “click” was onomatopoeia because it was created based on the sound of something.
Onomatopoeia was a word formation process that was used 33 times (17.27% from the total of all words that are formed through word formation processes) in the novel.
3. Clipping
Clipping is a word formation process which omits one or two syllables of the word (O'Grady & Archibald, 2016). In other words, the word becomes shorter than the original word. The author of the novel Michael Scott rarely used this word formation. Even though this word formation is very common among the other word formation, this novel did not use many words that was formed through clipping word formation.
Clipping is commonly used to create the nickname of a person (Arnoff &
Fudeman, 2011). Some of the characters in the novel uttered some words that were formed through clipping. One of the examples was the word which was clipped from a person name. The example is in the following sentence:
Excerpt 6:
Don’t tell me you knew Tut (p.140)
This sentence was uttered by Josh, one of the characters in the novel and it was explained in this following sentence:
Excerpt 7:
“The boy king, Tutankhamen.” (p.140)
The word “Tut” in Excerpt 6 was clipped from “King Tutankhamen.” The other clipped word was “Nick” clipped from “Nicholas” this was the fake name that was created by Nicholas Flamel, one of the characters in the novel.
The clipping word formation process occurs when a word has more than one syllable (Yule, 2014). Many words that had more than one syllable were clipped in the novel. The example was in the following sentence:
Excerpt 8:
He wasn’t sure what would happen if he fired off a blast of the gas at them. (p.178)
The word “gas” in Excerpt 8 was formed from the word “gasoline” (Harper, 2001,
“gas”). The syllable “o” and “line” in the word “gasoline” were omitted. The clipping process is omitting some syllables of the original word and make it shorter (Yule, 2014). The same process also happened for the word “goth” in the following sentence:
Excerpt 9:
Elle had never quite got over her Goth phase. (p.4) Another example is the word “phone” in the following sentence:
Excerpt 10:
“Maybe they’re undertakers?” Elle suggested, her voice popping and clicking on the cell phone. (p.3)
The word “phone” in Excerpt 10 was clipped from the word “telephone” and the word “goth” in Excerpt 9 was clipped from the word “gothic”. The clipping process usually clips the beginning in casual speech. However, it is possible to clip at the end of the syllable (Yule, 2014).
Table 4.6 The Example of Word Formed through Clipping
Formed word Word origin Page
Tut King Tutankhamen 140
Gas gasoline 178
phone telephone 3
Goth gothic 4
In Michael Scott’s The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel Novel, the researcher found 20 words (10.47%) that were formed through the clipping word formation process.
4. Backformation
Backformation is a process of removing a real or supposed affix of a word in order to create a new one (O'Grady & Archibald, 2016). Mostly, the word that was formed by backformation usually changed its lexical categories. Most of the words from this novel that were formed through backformation changed their lexical categories from noun into verb but backformation happened in other lexical categories (Yule, 2014). Some examples of the words that were commonly used in the novel were “process,” “injure,” and “kidnap.”
The word “process” was originally from the word “procession.” The word
“process” was a verb and the origin of the word was noun. It could be found in this sentence:
Excerpt 11:
“The man who discovered how to process iron that blacksmith three thousand years ago. What happened to him?” . . . (p.211)
The word “process” in Excerpt 11 is formed from the word “procession.” By omitting the affix “-ion,” the word “process” could be categorized as a word that was formed through backformation. According to Yule (2014), backformation process is a process of removing the affix to create a new word.
Another backformation process also happened in the word in the following sentence:
Excerpt 12:
He shifted direction, moving to the right, away from the struggling creatures, but he couldn’t help noticing that when they were badly injured, they reverted to their original bird and cat shapes (p.249-250).
The word “Injure” in “injured” from Excerpt 12 is backformation from the word
“injury” (Harper, 2001, “injure”). It was one of the examples of noun to verb backformation. Another noun to verb backformation was the word “kidnap” that was formed from “kidnapper” in the following sentence:
Excerpt 13:
We’ve got to tell them that Perry’s been kidnapped. . .. (p.24)
The word “kidnapped” in Excerpt 13 is backformation from “kidnapper”. By omitting the suffix “-er” which was from the derivation process, it could be classified as a backformation processes (O'Grady & Archibald, 2016).
There were 10 words (5.23% from the total words of all word formation processes) that were formed by backformation in the novel.
5. Blending
Blending is a word formation that is rarely used. Liu and Liu (2014) in their study found 11.9% from 210 words that are formed through blending in the netspeak or language that is uttered by netizen. In their study, compounding is more dominating rather than blending.
According to Arnoff and Fudeman (2011), blending is formed by combining parts of more than a word. From the novel, there were only 7 words that were formed by blending. There were only two types of blending namely, word and head of the word and head of the word and tail of the word. For example, the word “internet” in the following sentence:
Excerpt 14:
He needed to use the café’s wireless Internet connection (p.37).
The word “Internet” in Excerpt 14 is formed from the word “international” and the head of the word “network”. The example for head and tail was found in the following sentence:
Excerpt 15:
If Scathach had smashed him down on the stones, he could really have been hurt (p.206)
The word “smashed” in Excerpt 15 is formed from the head of the word “smack”
and the tail of the word “mash” and they got an affix of past tense verb “–ed”.
The author, Michael Scott, rarely used blending. In this novel, the researcher only found 7 words (3.66%) that were formed through blending. In other words, blending was rarely used to form a word in the novel. Liu and Liu (2014) found 11.9% of 210 words formed through blending in the netspeak or language that are uttered by netizen. In their study, they found compounding was more dominant. However, the researcher only found 3.66% from 191 words in this study and cliticization was the most frequently used. It showed that blending was rarely used to form a word.
6. Acronym
Acronym is new words formed from the initial letters of a set of words (Yule, 2014). The words that were formed through Acronym were rarely used in the novel because there were only 7 words (3.66%) and most of them were very common. The example of acronym from the novel was the word “SUV.” It stands for “Sport Utility Vehicle.” This word “SUV” was frequently used in this novel
because this was the vehicle that belonged to the main character. Another example is shown by following sentence:
Excerpt 16:
Sophie wasn’t especially frightened of them, though like everyone else she had heard the horror stories, urban legends and FOAF—friend of a friend—stories about the scavengers (p.51).
The word “FOAF” in Excerpt 16 was explained in the novel by the author.
In Oxford English Dictionary, the meaning of the word “FOAF” is the same as that in the novel. It is formed from “Friend of a Friend”.
Table 4.7 The Words that are Formed through Acronym
No Acronym
Formed
word Word origin 1 SUV sport utility vehicle 2 DVD digital video disc
3 CD compact disc
4 FOAF friend of a friend 5 DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
6 L.A Los Angels
7 US United States
O'Grady and Archibald (2016) state that acronym is commonly used to name an organization, military or science. However, The Alchemyst: The Secret of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel novel was a fantasy novel. Therefore, acronym was rarely used since the novel did not have a military or science as a theme.
7. Coinage
Coinage is a word that is created from a scratch (O'Grady & Archibald, 2016). In other words, it creates a new word from zero. Moreover, Yule (2014) explains that coinage is the invention and general use of totally new terms. In the
novel, there were some words that were used only for the story. The researcher found three words that were created only for the story. Those words were created on purpose or for particular occasion. Those words were coined or considered as new words (Bauer, 2003). The words were “alchemyst”, “wereboar”, and
“humani”. These three words became the frequently used in the novel and became common words for the characters in the novel.
The first word is “alchemyst.”. The word “alchemyst” could not be found in the Online Etymology Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary, the word was explained in these two sentences from the novel:
Excerpt 17:
I became the greatest alchemyst of all time, sought after by kings and princes, by emperors and even the Pope himself. I discovered the secret of the philosopher’s stone hidden deep in that book of ancient magic: I learned how to turn ordinary metal into gold, how to change common stones into precious jewels (p.30)
Based on the novel, the word “alchemyst” meant a person who discovered the secret of ancient magic to create something. There was another sentence from the novel that explained those definitions in the following sentence:
Excerpt 18:
You are the most powerful alchemyst in the known world. (p.62)
The word “alchemyst” became a common word in the novel. It was created for the story development. It was also a common word used by the characters in the novel. According Yule (2014), coinage is a new word that become general use.
However, the word “alchemist” could be categorized as a word that was formed through coinage.
