THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
IN TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS
(A Naturalistic Study at English Department of Teacher Training
and Education Faculty Sebelas Maret University Surakarta
in Academic Year 2009/2010)
Arranged by:
WASTUTI ARIYANI
K2206038
THESISPresented as Partial Requirements for the Undergraduate Degree of Education in Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret University
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
ii
APPROVAL
This thesis is approved by the consultants to be examined by the Board of
Examiners of Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret
University.
Approved by
Consultant I, Consultant II,
Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M. Pd Drs. Muh. Asrori, M. Pd
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This thesis is examined by the Board of the Examiners of Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret University and accepted as Partial fulfilment for the Requirements for the Undergraduate Degree of Education in English.
Day : Date :
The board of Examiners:
1. Chairman: Drs. A. Handoko Pudjobroto
(………..) NIP. 19581026 198803 1 001
2. Secretary: Teguh Sarosa, S.S., M. Hum.
(………..) NIP. 19730205 200604 1 001
3. Examiner I: Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M. Pd
(………..) NIP. 19610124 198702 1 001
4. Examiner II: Drs. Muh. Asrori, M. Pd
(………..) NIP. 19601015 198702 1 001
Teacher Training and Education Faculty Sebelas Maret University of Surakarta
Dean,
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ABSTRACT
Wastuti Ariyani. K2206038: The Use of Instructional Media in Teaching and Learning Process (A Naturalistic Study at English Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty Sebelas Maret University Surakarta in Academic Year 2009/2010). Teacher Training and Education Faculty, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta 2010.
This study is based on the problems of the use of instructional media that have not been optimally used yet. It focuses on how the instructional media has been used in teaching and learning so far. It also identifies the effect of using the instructional media in teaching and learning process toward the students.
The method used in this research is a descriptive qualitative method. The researcher uses descriptive method because the data are in the form of words so that the data are best analyzed by describing them. Further, the researcher uses qualitative method since the description of the data is analyzed and interpreted in order to find out the meaning from the data. The sources of data of the research are events, informants, and document analysis. The data are taken from the interview conducted with two students and three lecturers from this department. The technique of collecting the data is a non-measurement technique because the data are in the form of words.
Techniques in collecting the data are qualitative method. In qualitative method, the writer used observational and non-observational techniques. Observational techniques consist of observation while non-observational techniques consist of interviews and document analysis. The results of the observation and interview are in the form of field notes. The result of qualitative data is analyzed in three stages namely the data reduction, data presentation/data display, and conclusion drawing.
The results of this research show that the uses of instructional media have run well although some of them are not used any longer or have not been optimally used yet. Most of the lecturers have collaborated their teaching and leaning process with the instructional media provided as well as the students. There are some factors determining the process of selecting instructional media in teaching and learning process. There are also some factors that cause the use of instructional media cannot be optimalized yet. In the teaching and learning process itself, the lecturers face technical and functional problems. Toward the students, the use of instructional media contributes positive effects that are promoting students’ motivation and attention. Moreover, it helps the students in the process of understanding the subject matter.
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MOTTO
“Fight to work for your present world as if you would live endlessly, and do your
best for the hereafter as if you would die tomorrow”
The key to realize a dream is to focus not on success but significance - and then even the small steps and little victories along your path will take on greater meaning.
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DEDICATION
With deep profound love, this research is devoted to:
1. Her beloved father and mother.
2. Her brother and sister
2. Her best friends: Zee, Vina, Ciwita, Risti,
Kristin, all of her friends of English’06,
cah kos, and much more.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillahirobbil’alamin. All praise and thanks are only for Allah SWT, The Almighty God that gives His blessing and His help so the writer can
finish her thesis.
In the process of her study, she received support, contribution, and
assistance from many people. Thus, there are honorable people that are important
to the writer. She can only express her gratitude to:
1. The Dean of Teacher Training and Education Faculty.
2. The Head of English Department.
3. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd, as the first consultant.
4. Drs. Muh. Asrori, M. Pd, as the second consultant.
5. The lecturers in English Education Program.
6. Her family, friends, and those who are impossibly all mentioned.
Nothing is perfect except Allah S.W.T, and neither is this thesis. The
researcher accepts gratefully every comment and suggestion. However, she hopes
that this thesis will be useful to the improvement of the English teaching and
learning.
Surakarta, January 2010
viii A. The Nature of English Language Teaching ... 10
1.Language Learning ... 10
2.Language Teaching ... 12
3.Communicative Competence ... 14
4.Teaching as a System ... 18
5.The Characteristics of Effective Teaching ... 20
B. Instructional Media ... 24
1.The Definition of Instructional Media ………24
2.The Kinds of Instructional Media ………..25
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Language Teaching ……….30
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. The Setting of the Research ... 39
B. The Subject of the Research ... 41
C. The Method of the Research ... 41
D. Source of Data ... 43
E. Techniques of Collecting the Data ... 45
F. Techniques of Analyzing the Data ... 47
G. Trustworthiness ... 49
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDING AND DISSCUSION A. Research Finding………..51
B. Discussion………67
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusion ... 70
B. Suggestions ... 73
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 76
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Field notes of Observation ... 78
Appendix 2. Field notes of Interview ... 102
Appendix 3. Instrument of Observation ... 136
Appendix 4. Instrument of Interview with the lecturers ... 137
Appendix 5. Instrument of Interview with the students ... 139
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LIST OF TABLE
Table 2.1 Kinds of Instructional Media………..25
Table 3.1 The Schedule of Doing the Research ……….40
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LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 2.1. Teaching System Diagram ………..18 Figure 2.2 A diagrammatic representation of relationship between
theory and practice……….21 Figure 3.1 The Diagram of Interactive Model of Analysis ………46
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Teaching and learning process is regarded as a complex system as it
consists of some components connected one to another and works together to
achieve certain learning outcomes. Those components have to get connected
one to another as they build a complex system. The absence of one component
may affect the whole process of teaching and learning process. The maximum
target or desired learning outcomes in the end of the course or lesson cannot
be achieved when one or more of supporting factors do not exist. There are
many factors which determine the success of a teaching and learning process.
Generally, it is divided into two major factors: physical and psychological
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major problem for education, especially in our country. Many schools in
Indonesia are still in bad conditions dealing with its physical condition and also the supporting facilities such as books, computer, laboratory, and so on.
Moreover, the human resource quality of the learning instructor also becomes
crucial problem that still exists in this recent time. Many teachers in Indonesia
especially in remote area have not acquired adequate knowledge and chance to
collaborate their teaching and leaning process using the variety of techniques
due to the lack of facilities.
Those conditions of teaching and learning process are still quite different
from the definition of learning proposed by Smaldino. He states that learning is
the development of new knowledge, skill or attitudes (2005). An individual
interacts with information and the environment. The learning environment
includes the physical facilities, the psychological atmosphere, instructional technology, media and methods. Each elements of learning environment build a
system which can not be separated one to another. It means that inexistence of one
component in learning environment may create an obstacle in conducting teaching
and learning process. They work together as a system to achieve the goal, that is
the desired learning outcomes in the end of the course.
Meanwhile, according to Nurkamto (1999), the components of teaching
and learning process can be identified as follows. The first one is planning. The
planning process consists of lesson plan and curriculum that will guide the teacher
in order that the objectives of the study can be stated clearly since the very
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consists of teacher, students, material, media, and teaching and learning process.
Method and model of learning are also included in this process as it will determine the way and approach of the teacher in conducting teaching and
learning process. The last one is evaluation. The evaluation process covers
learning outcomes and subject reconstruction. The outcomes of teaching and
learning process can be used as indicator to identify whether the teaching and
learning process is successful or not.
Those three components in teaching and learning process will determine
the success in achieving the desired learning outcomes. One of technical supports
having an important role in teaching and learning process is media or instructional
media. Heinich states that medium is a channel of communication (1989: 6).
Derived from the Latin word for “between”, the term refers to “anything carrying
information between a source and a receiver”. He emphasizes that communication itself is an interpretive transaction between or among individuals. The sender of a
message encodes it according his or her skill and knowledge (field of experience),
and the receiver decodes it according to his or her field of experience. In teaching
and learning, the feedback process, however, the receiver (student) does more
than decode the message. He or she must also encode his or her interpretation of
the signal for relay back to the sender (teacher), who, in turn, must decode it.
Eventually, receiver becomes sender and sender becomes receiver and both
interpret the message according to their fields of experience. On the other words,
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while they are in teaching and learning process. Instructional media become the
bridge that eases the teacher to deliver the message or material to the students. Meanwhile according to Brown, almost in every case, media are
regarded as central elements in the approach to systematic instruction (1977: 2). In
considerations of media, another phrase representing a stage in the evolution of
knowledge about teaching is “instructional technology”. Many years ago, media
were called “audiovisual aids” those are physical things-tools for instruction. It
can be concluded that instructional media become one of components having a
crucial role as it can be utilized to help teacher in delivering the material based on
the technique used. It can be used to encourage students to get involved in
teaching and learning process in order that they will be able to communicate using
the language learned.
The development of information and technology somehow is also followed with the development of instructional media as well. Recently, the
development of instructional media has grown rapidly. As an institution that has
aim to produce highly qualified teachers, the Teacher Training and Education
Faculty of UNS Surakarta in the past few months has supported some of its
departments with more sophisticated instructional media. It is one of many efforts
to improve its quality in order that teaching and learning process can be conducted
in more creative ways and various techniques.
One of the departments which has been given those new instructional
media is English Department of FKIP UNS. However, in the beginning there have
xvi
the examples are whiteboard, OHP, Television, radio tape, computer, LCD, and so
on. Yet the number and quality of those stuffs was still limited and was not adequate to support the whole teaching and learning process. In the last one year,
more sophisticated instructional media have completed the facilities in English
Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty Sebelas Maret University
Surakarta. Not only has the development of its capabilities been increased, but
also the number of it. Sophisticated instructional media have been functioned to
support the teaching and learning process in the classroom. In the past few years,
each classroom has not been completed with computer and LCD. Nowadays, it
has been enriched with more instructional media, such as LCD and computer in
each classroom, internet connection (hotspot area) in the basement, and many
more. Moreover, this department now has two laboratories. The first one is called
language laboratory and the other one is multimedia laboratory. Both of those two labs have been supported with great facilities to get the teaching and learning
process run well.
As an institution having aim to produce good and qualified teacher, the
existence of sophisticated Instructional Media is one of the requirements that has
to be filled. Moreover, it also enriches the students’ knowledge and ability to use
the instructional media as they are prepared to be a teacher after finishing their
study from this department. In the future, they have to be able to use the
instructional media provided in the school institution where they will work
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have a very crucial part in developing the teacher professionalism for the students
who are actually English teachers- to-be.
In the teaching and learning process, instructional media become
something very helpful and useful for the lecturer and the students as well. They
help the lecturer deliver the material given and attract the students’ attention and
focus in the class. Moreover, it enables lecturers to present different materials in
various ways and techniques depending on the context and situation. Besides that,
the lecturers can work more efficiently since they can get a lot of kinds of
materials in the easier way particularly by using the computer and its internet
connection. For the students, it gives them a chance to practice teaching by
utilizing the device provided in the class so that they have the same chance as
much as the lecturers have. The existence of free internet connection or hot spot
also contributes a significant advantage for them in the process of searching some data or information dealing with their assignment or merely increasing their
knowledge for other field of study .
However, there are some of the instructional media provided that are not
used any longer or are rarely used. It seems that those instructional media have not
been used optimally yet. Moreover, some lecturers have not used the instructional
media yet provided in the teaching and learning process effectively. In fact, there
is significant difference of contribution that can be observed between those who
teach with various techniques and who do not. Meanwhile, the students also will
achieve different experiences when some of them use the instructional media and
xviii
which is created by using innovative ways encourages the students to get focus
and interested more in the material taught. Moreover, it does not cause them easy to get bored and ease them to understand the material. In the opposite, the old
techniques of teaching often cause the students ignore the explanation of the
teacher and prefer to have a chat with their friends.
However, the development of instructional media emerges some
problems that might create nuisances in teaching and learning process. The black
out often happens in the middle of teaching and learning process that absolutely
interrupt the concentration and focus of the lecturer and the students. Moreover, it
may also cause serious damage to the instructional media as they often turn off
without the proper mechanism. The preparation before using those instructional
media also often decreases the amount of time for teaching and learning process
itself. Sometimes, some lecturers spend at least fifteen minutes to install their own laptop to the device or instructional media in the classroom such as LCD.
Considering the fact that instructional media is still being a new facility
in the English Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty and they
have not been optimally used yet, the writer is interested in studying about the use
of Instructional Media in teaching and learning process in English Department of
Teacher Training and Education Faculty Surakarta. In addition, it is appropriate in
the discipline which is now studied by the writer.
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Based on the background of the study above, the emerging problems can
be identified as follows:
1. How is the use of instructional media in teaching and learning
process at English Department FKIP UNS so far?
2. How is the effect of using instructional media in teaching and
learning process toward the students?
C. The Objectives of the Study
The objectives that will be achieved through this research are:
1. To find out how the instructional media are used in teaching and
learning process at English Department FKIP UNS so far
2. To identify the effect of using instructional media in teaching and
learning process toward the students
D. The Benefit of the Study
The result of the study is expected to be able to give some contribution
for the lecturers, the students, and the researcher. The following are the
significance contributions of the study:
1. The lecturer
It is expected that through this research the lecturers are able to use the
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or method and to give more opportunities to the students to get
involved actively in teaching and learning process. They might also be more aware of the strengths and weaknesses of using those
instructional media and determine the solution for the obstacles faced
during using it in teaching and learning process.
2. The students
The students will know more about the importance, the variety and
benefit of the instructional media provided in their school’s
environment. They might be more creative in the teaching and learning
process as they have adequate spaces and chances to express their
thoughts and ability dealing with the material studied. It will also train
them to get used to the variety of instructional media and its usage in
order that they will not face any difficulties when they teach as a real teacher in actual class in the future.
3. The researcher
As one of students of English Department FKIP UNS, the writer hopes
that this research will be able to give valuable information dealing with
the usage, the strengths, and the weaknesses of instructional media in
teaching and learning process. Moreover, it is hoped that the other
researchers can have an additional knowledge about Instructional
Media dealing with its varieties, strength, and weaknesses in teaching
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE
C. The Nature of English Language Teaching 1. Language Learning
There are many definitions of language learning proposed by some experts. The definition is firstly stated by Kimble and Garmezi (in Brown,
1994:7). They define learning as a relatively permanent change in a behavioral
tendency and are the result of reinforced practice. From this definition, it can be broken down:
a. Learning is acquisition or “getting”
b. Learning is retention of information or skill
c. Retention implies storage system, memory, cognitive organization
d. Learning involves active, conscious, focus on, and activity upon events
outside or inside organism
e. Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forget
f. Learning involves some forms of practice, perhaps reinforced practice g. Learning is a change of behavior
Similarly, Klein (1996) adds that language learning is an experimental
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explained by temporarily states, maturation, or inmate respond tendencies. As
an experimental process, learning refers to a conscious process. This opinion is supported by Widdowson in “Aspect of Language Learning” who states that
learning is a process of conscious interaction whereby performance initiated
by the matured and unconscious process of acquisition is monitored. Thus,
learning can only be brought about the language being used and its conformity
to rule, when there is time to “focus on form” when learners are cough up in
communication, concerned with making meaning. They have neither the time
nor indeed the inclination to monitor their performance, which in consequence
reveals they have acquired without artificial additives of learning (1990: 20).
Meanwhile, Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) in Richard and Rodgers
(2001: 156) state that language learning is learning to communicate. It is also
supported by Diane Larsen (2000: 127) who states that learning to use language form appropriately is an important part of communicative
competence. It is based on a theory of language as communication in
communicative approach. Language learning is learning to communicate.
Tudor adds (1996: 39) that language learners grow out of the general
approach to language learning which is active, inquiry, and attentive, and can
only be acquired interactively. Hence, some factors making an effective set of
learning strategies depend on a number of factors such as the task (the useful
activity or strategy), the learning stage, the context, individual styles, and
cultural differences in cognitive learning styles. In contrary to those
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learning about the system of the language which covers the sounds, meanings,
words, syllable, and sentence structure of the target language (Nunan in Joko Nurkamto, 2002: 1).
Based on the definitions above, it can be concluded that language
learning is an active process and conscious interaction resulting permanent
change in order that the learner will be able to use the language in real
communication. From those explanation, in this study, the writer follows the
communicative approach that view the language as learning to use the
language in communication. Hopefully, in the end of the learning process, the
students are able to use the target language i.e. English communicatively in
four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
2. Language Teaching
Language teaching is different from language learning. Anderson and
Burns (1989: 7 in Elliot et all, 1996: 6) state teaching can be considered as a
process since teaching involves action. Teaching can also be regarded as an
interpersonal activity, since teachers interact with one or more students. The
interaction can be bi-directional which means teachers influence students and
vice versa. It is also known as reciprocal interaction. In addition, teaching is
characterized intentional. It means when teachers teach, they have a purpose.
Considering those attributes, Anderson and Burns (1989) provide the
following useful definition of teaching. Teaching is an interpersonal,
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undertaken for the purpose of helping one or more students learn or change
the ways in which they can or will behave. In relation, Elliot et all (1996: 6) define teaching as “those actions designed to help one or more students learn”
The aim of language teaching is to develop student’s communicative
competence. Language teaching should be communicative in order to get
better product. One of the clearest presentations of this matter has come from
Littlewood. He says that one of the most characteristics features of
communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to
functional as well as structural aspect of language. The communicative view
of language teaching is communicative ability (1988: 1). Similarly, Brown
(2000: 14) states that language teaching is teaching which stresses on the
importance of self esteem of students cooperatively learning together of
developing individual strategies for success and above all of focusing on the communicative process in language learning
Meanwhile, Stern (1996: 21) defines language teaching as the
activities intended to bring about language learning. Sometimes, Illich (1971
in Stern 1996: 21) also said that an informal method of deschooling teaching
the language in unplanned situation is more effectively than formal classroom
instruction. Hence a good teaching theory would meet the conditions and
needs of learners in the best possible ways (Stern, 1983: 21).
From the explanation above, it can be concluded that language
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communication, which is undertaken for the purpose of helping the students to
develop their communicative competence.
3. Communicative Competence
Chomsky’s view of what it means to know a language is reflected in
his distinction between linguistic competence and linguistic performance. In
Aspect of the Theory of Syntax, (1965) Chomsky writes:
‘Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogenous speech community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance. The perfect knowledge referred to here is the mastery of the abstract system of rules by which a person is able to understand and produce any and all of the well-formed sentences of his language, i.e. his linguistic competence. The actual use of language, affected by what he terms grammatically irrelevant conditions, and identified with the criterion of acceptability, not grammatically, is the domain of linguistic performance. (Chomsky 1965: 3)
He considers that samples of speech and writing obtained from native
speakers should not be the data on which linguist worked, since they contain
errors in performance and are therefore misleading. He also said that a
generative grammar was an attempt to “characterize…the knowledge of the
language that provides the basis for actual use of language by a
speaker-hearer”. He later made an even stronger claim, to the effect that linguistic
xxvi
the speaker, and provided the basis for the speaker’s understanding of
linguistic relations.
Meanwhile, Habermas (1970) in Munby (1998: 11) states that
communicative competence relates to an ideal speech situation in the same
way that linguistic competence relates to the abstract system of linguistic rules.
The dialogue-constitutive universals at the same time generate and describe
the form of inter-subjectivity which makes mutuality of understanding
possible.
These are the four sectors of communicative competence stated by
Hymes (1971) in Munby (1998: 15):
a. Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;
b. Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means
of implementation available;
c. Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy,
successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;
d. Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done.
Those four sectors of his communicative competence reflect the
speaker-hearer’s grammatical (formally possible), psycholinguistic
(implementationally feasible), sociocultural (contextually appropriate) and de
facto (actually occurring) knowledge and ability for use. In sum, the goal of a
broad theory of competence can be said to show the ways in which the
xxvii
and interpret actually occurring cultural behavior ( Hymes, 1971 in Munby
1998: 15).
Cooper’s (1968) in Munby (1998: 16) view of communicative
competence is very like Hymes’ although he concerns only with the
sociolinguistic and grammatical parameters. He reinforces Hymes’ point that
effective communication requires more than linguistic competence: “To
communicate effectively, a speaker must know not only how to produce any
and all grammatical utterances of a language, but also how to use them
appropriately. The speaker must know what to say, with whom, and when, and
where.
Another linguist with an essentially Hymnesia view of communicative
competence, although deriving more from rhetoric and discourse analysis, is
Widdowson (1971 and 1975 in Munby, 1998: 17). He disagrees with the Chomsky/Katz and Postal view of performance as a residual category for
everything unsystematic and therefore not accountable under competence,
since some of their so-called performance features are in fact systematic and
should therefore be regarded as part of a person’s competence. A speaker’s
competence includes knowing how to recognize and how to use sentences to
perform what he calls rhetorical acts - e.g. defining, classifying, promising,
warning, etc.
Jakobovits, whose reasons for rejecting the Standard Theory view of
(linguistic) competence accord broadly with Hymes, Cooper, and Widdowson,
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communicative competence (1970 in Munby 1998: 18). These concern
paralinguistic, kinesic, sociolinguistic, and psycholinguistic factors. Meanwhile, Canale (1983) in Yalden (1987: 20) writes the nature of
linguistic communication as follows:
a. Is a form of social interaction, and is therefore normally acquired and used
in social interaction;
b. Involves a high degree of unpredictability and creativity in form and
message;
c. Takes place in discourse and sociocultural contexts which provide
constraints on appropriate language use and also clues as to correct
interpretations of utterances;
d. Is carried out under limiting psychological and other conditions such as
memory constraints, fatigue, and other distractions;
e. Always has a purpose (for example, to establish social relations, to
persuade, or to promise);
f. Involves authentic, as opposed to textbook-contrived language; and
g. Is judged as successful or not on the basis of actual outcomes.
Taking into account to this concept of linguistic communication,
Canale and Swain (1980) provide a specification of three interacting factors.
Canale (1983) in Yalen (1987: 20) later subdivided one of these factors,
listing a total of four areas of knowledge and skill:
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b. Sociolinguistic competence (appropriateness of utterances with respect
both to meaning and form)
c. Discourse competence (mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and
meanings to achieve unity of a spoken or written text)
d. Strategic competence (mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication
strategies used to compensate for breakdowns in communication, and to
make communication more effective.
xxx Figure 2.1. Teaching System Diagram
From the diagram above, it can be seen that teaching process consists
of some steps and components working together to achieve certain learning
outcomes. Each components depends one to another as they work as a system.
According to Gino (1997), there are four subsystems in teaching.
Those are follows: a. School
School factor covers:
i. School organization culture
ii. School quality indicators
iii. Institution context
b. Teacher
The teachers should have professionalism qualification as follows:
i. Knowledge of the subject
ii. Pedagogic Knowledge
iii. Personal Knowledge
c. Learning Process
Learning process factors cover: i. Learning model selection
ii. The development of learning quality
xxxi iii. Learning evaluation
d. Students
Students’ factors cover the understanding toward:
i. Learning concept
ii. Learning types
iii. Learning motivation
5. The Characteristics of Effective Teaching
In essence, good teaching is neither exclusively art nor essentially
science, but rather a combination of both. (Ornstein, 2000:5) Effective
teaching is also clearly defined in Government Rule especially in Education
and Culture No. 19/2005:
Pembelajaran yang efektif adalah pembelajaran dilaksanakan secara interaktif, inspiratif, menyenangkan, menantang, memotivasi peserta didik untuk berpartisipasi aktif, serta memberikan ruang yang cukup bagi prakarsa, kreativitas, dan kemandirian sesuai dengan bakat, minat, dan perkembangan fisik serta psikologis peserta didik
Based on the definition above, the effective teaching is a process
which is conducted interactively, challenging, motivating the students to
actively participate and provide adequate chance for the creativity and
independency according to their talents interest, and the physical and
psychological growth of the students. It means that teacher should be able to
build a good quality of teaching that enable students to get involved actively
in the teaching and learning process as the way for them to use the language
xxxii
Meanwhile, according to Ornstein (2000: 3), effective teaching is
defined as the actions of professionally trained persons that enhance the cognitive, personal, social and physical development of students. This
definition reflects aspects of both the traditional and humanistic viewpoints
about the goals of education. The underlying characteristics that make up
effective teaching according to Ornstein are described as follow:
Figure 2.2 A diagrammatic representation of the relationship between theory and practice.
The more abstract aspects of the model are at the top of the schema. The more practical and
applied are at the bottom of the schema.
At the highest level of the schema are the theoretical models. In a scientific sense, a theory is a “set of formal expressions that provides a
complete and consistent characterization of well-articulated domain” (Reber,
1985 in Ornstein 2000). In plain terms, a theory (or a theoretical model) is a
set of ideas or thought or propositions of an abstract kind used to guide
methods, select principles and guide practical decision-making. For example,
Principles
Methods
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a theory of communication or a theory of learning may be used as the basis for
a particular method of teaching. Non-scientific theories also have a place in this schema. These theories deal with values, ideals, and goals. Some teachers
accentuate social goals and others stress academic goals.
At the second level are the principles. These are derived from
theoretical models. In this context principles are generalizations used as
guidelines for action. The focus is on teaching principles. One of the example
is “Teachers should give immediate feedback to learners after they have
attempted a learning task”. Competent teachers act to apply a set of sound
teaching principles because they understand that in doing so improvement in
student learning is likely. The less competent teacher applies an inferior set of
principles, the result being poor learning.
The third level of the schema is methods. Methods are sets of teaching plans, strategies and techniques used to organize classroom practice.
Instructional methods deal with the step-by-step procedures used in instruction.
Methods also deal with the organization of instructional programs for the
purpose of achieving curriculum goals. The methods level is less abstract than
the models and principles levels referred to above and is closer to the practical
world of daily classroom teaching.
At the lowest level are strategies, procedures, and techniques.
Strategies are small-scale plans for teaching. They are highly specific teaching
operations that are used to guide the activities of the classroom teacher.
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attainment of specific instructional objectives. Procedures are the individual
parts of a teaching strategy. These cover concrete teaching steps supporting the attainment of specific goals. Procedures are components of strategies.
Techniques are teaching procedures of the most practical kind, designed to
achieve short-term instructional benefits. Procedures and techniques are at the
lowest level of the hierarchy and are concrete of all the instructional elements
described in the schema.
The characteristics of effective teaching proposed by Nurkamto (2009)
are stated as follows:
a. Guided with a good curriculum
b. Having valuable hope
c. Lesson/ study oriented
d. Having clear objectives
e. The progress of the study is monitored efficiently
f. Having continual remedial
g. Effective use of learning time
h. Having high standard class
i. Having good personal relationship
j. Having reward system
According to Susilohadi (2009), the characteristics of effective
teaching are:
a. Having clear objectives
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c. Reflecting the nature of the language skill to be taught
d. Well structured
e. Giving students adequate chance to communicate
D. Instructional Media
1. The Definition of Instructional Media
Media refers to a carrier. Smaldino (1996: 9), defines a medium (plural,
media) is a means of communication and source of information. Derived from
the Latin words meaning “between”, the term refers to anything that carries information between a source and a receiver. Examples include video,
television, diagrams, printed materials, computer program and instructors.
These are considered instructional media when they provide messages with an
instructional purpose. The purpose of media is to facilitate communication and
learning.
Meanwhile, Heinich (1989: 7) also defines media (medium, singular)
are carriers of information between source and a receiver. Instructional media
are “a means by which information can be delivered to a learner intended to
change behavior”. Each medium represents a means of connecting learners,
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and Gagne’s (1983: 5) define instructional media are the physical means by
which an instructional message is communicated. By this definition, a printed text, an audiotape, a training service, a TV program, an instructor’s talking
along with many other physical means are all considered media. Meanwhile,
Briggs (1970) in Sadiman (2007: 6) writes media is all of physical means that
can provide function to encourage students to learn.
Asosiasi Pendidikan Nasional (National Education Association/NEA)
has its own definition of media. Media is a form of communication whether in
printed form or audiovisual and its devices. Media should be able to be
manipulated, observable, audible, and readable. Whatever boundaries given,
there is similarity between those boundaries that media is all of things that can
be used to deliver message from the sender to the receiver in order to stimulate
thought, feeling, attention and interest of the students to build a learning process.
To sum up, the term instructional media refers to physical means of
communication carrying information between source and a receiver whether
in printed form or audiovisual and its devices that is manipulated to enrich
teaching and learning process .
2. The Kinds of Instructional Media
There are many kinds of instructional media usually used in teaching
and learning process. According to Newby (1996: 17), the kinds of
instructional media with attributes and examples will be described in the
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A plastic model of the human eye
Text Written words Biology textbook
Written material from an electronic
encyclopedia
Video on how to seek shelter during
a tornado
Audio Sound Audio CD of an inspirational
speech
Audiotape of directions for
completing a process
Projected overhead transparency of
the state of South Carolina
Map of the organizational structure
xxxviii Table 2.1 Kinds of Instructional Media
According to Smaldino (1996: 9), there are six types of media used in
learning and instruction.
a. Text
The most commonly used medium is text. Text is alphanumeric characters that may be displayed in any format-book, poster, chalkboard,
computer screen, and so on.
b. Audio
Audio includes anything you can hear-a person’s voice, music,
mechanical sounds (running car engine), noise, and so on. It may be live or
recorded.
c. Visuals
Visuals are regularly used to promote learning. They include diagrams on a poster, drawing on a chalkboard, photographs, graphics in a
book, cartoons, and so on.
d. Motion media
Multimedia Combination
of various
media forms
Computer program on comparative
culture that incorporates pictures,
textual descriptions, native music, and short videos of individuals
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Motion media are media that show motion, including videotape,
animation, and so on. e. Manipulatives
One set of material often not considered media are real objects and
models. Manipulatives are three dimensional and can be touched and
handled by students.
f. People
The sixth and the final category of media is people. These may be
teachers, students, or subject matter experts. People are critical to learning.
Students learn from teachers, other students, and other adults.
3. The Importance of Instructional Media in Language Teaching
Technology and instructional media can serve many roles in learning process. The instruction may be dependent on the presence of a teacher (i.e.,
instructor directed). Certainly, properly designed instructional media enhance
and promote learning and support teacher–based instruction but their
effectiveness depends on the instructor. According to Newby (1996: 17),
instructional media for teachers and learners can be used to:
a. Present materials in a manner learners readily assimilate
b. Deliver materials independently of the teacher, thus allowing students
some control over how much the material they will experience and when
(e.g. students can rewind or fast-forward portions of a video-or audiotape
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c. Allow learners for experience materials through various senses (e.g.
seeing projected slides, reading textual materials, and hearing a verbal description of the same content.
d. Provide learners with repeated and varied experiences with subject matter
to help them construct their own understanding or meaning.
e. Gain and maintain learners’ attention on the subject matter
f. Motivate students toward a goal
g. Present information in a manner that individual learners otherwise could
not experience
h. Accommodate varying sizes of audiences
In other way, Sadiman (1997: 17) writes the importance of
Instructional Media in teaching and learning process as follows:
a. Clears the message deliverance in order not too verbal (in form of written words or merely spoken)
b. Overcoming the lack of space, time and sense, such as:
1) Too big object- can be changed by realia, picture, film frame, or
model;
2) Small object- helped with micro projector, film frame, or picture;
3) Too slow or too fast motion, can be helped with time-lapse or
high-speed photography;
4) Moment happened in the past can be showed through film record,
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5) Too complex object (such as machines) are able to be presented with
model, diagram, and so on, and
6) Too broad concept (volcano, earthquake, climate, and others) can be
visualized in the form of film, film frame, picture, and so on.
c. The use of educational media appropriately and variously can overcome
the passive behavior of the students. In this case, instructional media has
advantage for:
1) Emerging the learning passion;
2) Enabling interaction which is more direct between students and its
environment and reality;
3) Enabling students to learn in their own according to their abilities
and interests.
d. The unique characteristic of each student together with circumstance and different experience, whereas curriculum and instructional material
determined equal for every students, there are many teachers face
obstacles if all of those stuff have to be addressed themselves. It is going
to be more difficult if the circumstance background of teacher and
students are different too. This case can be overcome with instructional
media, that are with the ability:
1) Giving the same stimulation
2) Generate the experiences
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4. The Principle of Using Instructional Media in Language Teaching
Instruction is provided in a learning situation. The features of this situation impose constraints upon what media may be most effective (Gagne,
1992: 206). The following are features of the intended learning situations that
need to be taken into account in selecting media:
a. Communications to the learner delivered by the teacher (instructor) versus
communications delivered via media for self-instruction
b. Learners possessing sufficient verbal comprehension ability to
comprehend printed communications versus learners who have sufficient
verbal comprehension ability
c. Communications delivered directly to the learner or learners versus
communications broadcast from a central station
d. The performance to be learned is such that errors are serious (that is, dangerous, as in the case of airplane emergency procedures) versus
performances whose potential errors are not serious
Each of these features imposes some limitations on the kinds of media
appropriate. If instructor considers the relationship of media characteristics to
the type of learning situation, he discovers a broad range of choices. This
process of media choice is only the first step. One must then proceed to
narrow the field to the few media that are capable of supporting instruction
most effectively.
Beyond the consideration of requirements of the learning situation,
xliii
contributing to the narrowing of choices. These are those factors in media
selection proposed by Gagne (1992: 211): a. Physical Factors
The terms of the physical characteristics of the communications
which are able to display make media differ from each other. Some
media permits visual displays, and others do not. In teaching the
identification of concrete concepts (shapes, objects) and spatial
relationships (locations, distances), the property of visual display is
usually used. In general, media have capability of presenting verbal
displays, either as printed text or as audio messages. It is worth noting
that print on paper is one of the least expensive media when printed text
otherwise appropriate. The capability of presenting sound is commonly
occurring dispute of media. Verbal messages and presentation of other varieties of sound, such as environmental uses and music, play roles in
media choices. Color may be employed in connection with pictorial
displays. Research findings indicate that color does not increase the
effectiveness of instruction, except when it is an essential feature of
what must be learned (Schramm 1997).
b. The Learning Task
The type of performance expected of learners as a result of
instruction (the learning outcome) needs to be considered with some
care in choosing media for instruction. The most apparent media
xliv
feedback to the learner about correctness and incorrectness of
performance is a matter of great significance to learning effectiveness when intellectual skills are being learned. When concrete concepts or
rules involving spatial arrangements or spatiotemporal sequences are
being learned, the presentation of pictures (as opposed to verbal
descriptions) is an essential aspect of instruction.
c. Learning Variables
When selecting media, the characteristics of learners must be
taken into account. ATI has showed the effects of instruction on
learners differing in such traits as anxiety and locus of control. Some
educators are convinced that learners differing in “learning styles”
may benefit most from media presentations that match their styles.
What these learning style differences are and whether they may be effective with different media has not been definitely established. if
the styles were recognized, it might not be feasible or economical to
provide sufficient parallel media packages for each lesson to
accommodate all of the differing styles.
d. The Assumed Learning Environment
The other set of factors in media selection is based upon
administrative considerations rather than technical ones. The practical
use of media varies with such features of the learning environment
such as:
xlv 2) Size of the class
3) Capability for developing new materials
4) Availability of radio, television, and other media equipment
5) Teacher capabilities and availability for an instructional design
effort
6) Availability of modular materials or individualized, performance
based instruction
7) Attitudes of principal and teachers toward innovations
8) School architecture
e. The Assumed Development Environment
Apparently, it would be useless to plan to design a delivery
system (and the attendant media) if the design and the development
resources were not sufficient for the task. That is, the time, the budget, and personal available will influence the probability of success in
designing specified delivery systems. For example, the kinds of
personal available will determine the kinds of media that can be
developed successfully. More than this, the personnel available will
determine the kind of design model that is feasible for the situation.
Carey and Briggs (1977) have discussed more how budgets, time, and
personnel influence not only what instruction can be developed, but
also what design models and what team management systems are
appropriate to the task.
xlvi
One will hope to choose media that are acceptable for the users
and within the budget and technology resources available in designing an instructional system. Behavior toward various media may distinct
between urban and rural people or among ethnic or socioeconomic
subgroups. To utilize radio and television, some countries or regions
would not have the technological skills or the electric power, whereas
these media would be practical and acceptable at other places.
Religious or cultural attitudes may also determine local reactions to
various media. Print media may emerge high prestige in one area, yet
radio and television have greater favor in another. All of these factors
should be considered if the media selected for a delivery system are to
find acceptance.
Inside boundaries of acceptance for various media, further consideration can then be given to cost effectiveness. Under one
circumstance, cost may be the overriding factor, yet under another
circumstance, a required level of effectiveness may be considered first,
after which cost are determined.
g. Practical Factors
Considering that the media under perception are acceptable to
the users and are within their capabilities, a number of detailed
practical factors remain to be considered in order to choose media that
are effective and also convenient. The suitability of media for use in
xlvii
of learner, response desired, type of stimulus presentationr, simplicity
of physical classroom arrangements, requirements for lighting or darkness in the room, and other environmental conditions.
Meanwhile, according to Brown (1977: 71), there are seven
principles of media used in teaching and learning.
a. No one medium is best for all purposes
b. Recognize that no one medium, procedure, or student experience is
necessarily best for learning a particular subject, for acquiring a
particular skill, or for developing a specified desirable attitude or level
of appreciation. Some subjects appear to be better suited for
presentation by one medium rather than another. A particular example
of optimum fit between one kind of medium and the subject studied is
the use of audio recordings in learning foreign languages. It is believed that it can be brought to life and students can be motivated to
learn the facts and concepts of the subject by the use of a variety of
media, books, motion pictures, still pictures, and maps and globes.
However, it is possible that not all students need such variety. Instead,
some students may prefer to learn history through reading historical
novels or textbooks or through listening to recordings or participating
in simulations.
c. Media uses should be consistent with objectives
It is important to make sure the uses of media are consistent with the
xlviii
history class is to develop a favorable attitude on the part of students
toward further study and exploration of the period involved, for example, think twice before invariably following a film showing with
a fact test. For high moment of student interest, such testing may kill
an otherwise favorable attitude and create aversive reactions to the
topic and even to the study of the history.
d. Users must familiarize themselves with media content
To adapt materials to specific program purposes, it is important to
know them thoroughly their content, how they may be used to best
benefit, the levels of difficulty in relation to competencies of students
and conditions of availability, that is when and for how long teacher
have them. Besides examining media, also take into account mode
teachers have in mind: large-group instruction, small-group activities providing for interaction, or independent study.
e. Media must be appropriate for the mode of instruction
f. Be aware that the results of using media are also influenced by the
student experiences, preferences, individual interests and capabilities,
and learning styles. For example, students reading well and enjoying
reading may be expected to take benefit more from reading books than
those who do not. Yet to attract and keep the interest of slower readers
and to help them understand and profit from what they read, teacher
may need to introduce, along with print items, various correlated
xlix
g. Media are neither good nor bad simply because they are either
concrete or abstract
h. Resources and learning experiences are not necessarily good or bad
simply because they are presented through concrete or abstract means.
It is more nearly accurate to take into account media resources as
having special (but not necessarily unique) benefits for certain
teaching goals. Commonly, one or more of some different items of the
same class dealing with the same subject may be used to accomplish a
particular goal. In such cases, the values of items selected may depend
more upon how they are used than upon any built-in advantages or
disadvantages related to concreteness or abstractness.
i. Media should be chosen objectively rather than on the basis of
personal preference or bias
j. Never let your own preferences for particular media stand in the way
of providing learning experiences students need. Sometimes, teachers
say that they won’t use a particular film anymore since they have tired
of it. If teachers have ever said this, perhaps they ought to develop a
new point of view about the film in question. Remember that in all
probability, your students will not have seen it and in any case, it may
be the very best means of providing the experience in teacher’s mind.
k. Physical conditions surrounding uses of media affect significantly the
l
l. Some excellent media resources may become second-rate in their
instructional effect when they are used insufficient or inappropriate environments. Improper acoustics, uncontrolled or poor lighting,
overheated rooms, stale air, noisy pollution and similar distractions
are hazards to be avoided by the control of the teacher. Therefore, in
each instructional effort, as teacher selects media, be concerned with
the conditions under which they will be used.
CHAPTER
III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In chapter III, the researcher discusses the research methodology that is
used in the research. This chapter contains seven sub chapters namely setting of the research, the subject of the research, the method of the research, the source of
the data, technique of collecting the data, technique of analyzing the data, and
trustworthiness.
A. The Setting of the Research 1. The Place of the Research
This research was conducted in English Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty Sebelas Maret University Surakarta. This university is
located in Jl. Ir. Sutami 26 Kentingan Solo 57216, Central Java. This department
li
Belongs to PBS building, this department has to share the building with the other
programs such as PLB, Indonesian Department, and Art Department. The building consists of three floors. The lecturers’ office can be found in the first floor which
is integrated with Indonesian and Art Department. It is separated with some glass
rooms of each department one to another.
This department has two labs. Both of them are located in the second
floor. The first is called as Language Laboratory and the second one is
Multimedia Laboratory. The language laboratory is commonly used for listening
class. Meanwhile the multimedia laboratory is usually used for computer subject
in particular semester. However, those two laboratories are often used by the
lecturers to conduct ordinary teaching and learning process when the three
classrooms are not available. There are some devices that can be found in the
language laboratory such as a master console, which is completed with a computer set, cassette player and microphone. Moreover, there are also 24 booths for
students (completed with headphone, chairs, a computer set, and microphone), TV,
LCD, one white board, shoes rack, 7 lamps, two cupboards, 2 speakers active,
and 2 units of AC. Meanwhile in the multimedia laboratory, there are 24 units of
computer, server and master console, LCD projector, LCD screen, two speakers,
handy cam, 25 web cam, 3 whiteboard, scanner, printer, digital camera, 3 AC (Air
conditioner), visualizer, laptop, and security camera. There is no booth for
students because this second lab is actually functioned as multimedia laboratory.
There are three classrooms located in the third floor. There is one door,
lii
made of glasses in each room. Each of the classrooms also has been provided with
two units of AC (Air Conditioner), LCD, two electric fans, approximately eight lamps, speaker, clock, and computer set. There is also white board in each
classroom.
2. The Time of the Research
The research was conducted from the time the researcher proposed the
title, proposed the proposal, did the research and up to the time when she collected
the result of the study to the library. Below is the timeline of the research:
Table 3.1 The Schedule of Doing the Research
Activities Time
Pre-Research (Interview, Observation) April 2009
Data gathering October 2009- November 2009
Data analysis November 2009
Proposing the whole material December 2009
Preparation of examination January 2010
B. The Subject of the Research
The subjects of the research are the students coming from the fifth
liii
Instructional Media in their teaching and learning process. The researcher took
two students coming from the fifth semester as the informant for interview process and also three lecturers using Instructional Media in their teaching and
learning process. The students are Fitria Meylana and Dinar Marfuah. Actually
there are 20 lecturers in this department. They are 4 females and 16 males. Three
of them will be the object of the observation and interview session dealing with
the use of instructional media in teaching and learning process.
C. The Method of the Research
Doing a research means following certain methods as the guidance. The
method used in this research is qualitative method since the material will be
non-numerical oriented. As stated by Blaster et al. (1996: 60), qualitative research is concerned with collecting and analyzing information in many forms, chiefly
non-numerical as possible. It is also supported by Strauss and Corbin (1990: 60) that
qualitative research is any kind of research that produces finding not arrived at by
means of statistical procedures or other means of qualification.
This research uses the naturalistic approach emphasizing on natural setting.
Lincoln and Guba (1985: 39-40) in Mulyana states the characteristics of natural
approach as follows:
1. The researcher is the instrument
2. The reality of human being is inseparable from their context and their
