Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue1.1997:

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The author would like to Educ atio n at No ttingham Tre nt Unive rs ity, No ttingham, UK

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Sue Law

Le arning le sso ns: why c ho o se distanc e le arning in e duc atio n manage me nt?

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 1 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 –2 5

ea r ly d ay s vocifer ou sly lin k ed t o gover n m en t -led “b a ck t o b a sics ” p h ilos op h ies, w it h t h eir em p h a s is on p er s on a l r es p on s ib ilit y r a t h er t h a n st a t e s u p p or t . Wh et h er exa m in ed a t t h e level of s t a ff a n d p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t or in t er m s of u n d er gr a d u a t e s t u d ies, t h e locu s of com m it m en t a n d fu n d in g s u p p or t h a s sh ift ed p r ogr es s ively t ow a r d s t h e in d iv id u a l a n d aw ay fr om t h e in s t it u t ion ; t ow a r d s loa n s a n d aw ay fr om gr a n t s; t ow a r d s in s t r u m en t a l-is t “t r a in in g” op p or t u n it ies a n d aw ay fr om b r oa d er “ed u ca t ion ” im p er a t ives. Wit h t h e em er gen ce of a n in cr ea sin gly com p et it ive p ost gr a d u a t e “q u a lifi ca t ion s m a r k et ”, w e a r e fa ced w it h a n ew cr ed en t ia lis t focu s, w h er e a r gu a bly, in d iv id u a lized n eed s cou ld b e m et t h r ou gh n e got ia t ed cu r r icu la in a n ew ly -en la r ged , p os t -b in a r y u n iver s it y s ect or. It is h er e, p er h a p s, t h a t t h e n ew er u n iver s it ies w it h t h eir t r a d it ion a lly s t r on ger voca t ion a l p r ofi le, h ave led t h e w ay t o d evelop in g in n ov -a t ive p r ofes sion -a l q u -a lifi c-a t ion s.

E a ch of t h ese elem en t s h a s h elp ed t o p r o-vok e s t r u ct u r a l a n d m et h od ologica l ch a n ges in p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t p r ov ision . It is a n ir on y p er h a p s t h a t , w h ile t h e t r en d is t ow a r d s s elf-s u fficien cy in fu n d in g w it h t h e r h et or ic of d em a n d focu sed on in d iv id u a l cu s t om er s, w e a r e sim u lt a n eou s ly s eein g p er s on a l n eed s su b s u m ed by a n d w it h in in s t i-t u i-t ion a l n eed s. Accom p a n y in g i-t h is, ii-t h a s b een a r gu ed t h a t w e a r e m ov in g clos er t o a “cu lt u r e of p er son a l lea r n in g” (Ker r y, 1993) w h ich is lea r n er -led a n d m a t er ia ls-cen t r ed , r a t h er t h a n t ea ch er -d ir ect ed (F u ller et a l., 1989). T h is focu s m ay in d ica t e a n a t t em p t a t m a n a gin g t h e d ifficu lt b a la n ce b et w een m eet -in g -in d iv id u a l a gen d a s w h ile sa t is fy -in g -in s t i-t u i-t ion a l d em a n d s – a p oin i-t u n d er p in n ed , p er h a p s, by t h e in cr ea sin g u se of t h e la n gu a ge of “p a r t n er sh ip ” b et w een h igh er ed u ca t ion , sch ools/ colle ges, a n d in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s, a n d n ot ed a s a p os sible focu s for fu t u r e d evelop m en t , for exa m p le, in t h e Op en Un iver s it y ’s ow n p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t wor k (Cr a ft , 1994).

T r a d it ion a lly, sit e-b a s ed , aw a r d -b ea r in g p ost gr a d u a t e op p or t u n it ies in h igh er ed u ca -t ion (i.e. M a s -t er ’s d e gr ees, a dva n ced d ip lom a s a n d p os t gr a d u a t e cer t ifi ca t es ) h ave offer ed s t u d en t s con t in u it y a n d d e p t h of s t u dy, p r o-v id ed t h r ou gh a focu sed a ca d em ic r es ou r ce b a se, d ir ect lin k s in t o a p r ofes sion a l “com m u n it y of s ch ola r s”, a ccr ed it ed lea r n in g p a t h -w ay s, p er s on a lized t u t or cou n s ellin g/ su p p or t a n d , m or e r ecen t ly, t h e d evelop m en t of fl exi-ble, m od u la r ized cou r s e op t ion s (Mor r is on , 1993).

M or e r ecen t ly, h ow ever, cou r s e p r ov id er s – esp ecia lly t h os e clos est t o t h e p u blic s ect or voca t ion a l in t er fa ce – h ave b een con fr on t ed by t h e t w in p r es s u r es of con s u m er ism a n d

q u a lit y a sses sm en t , w h ich a r e d r iv in g a r efr a m in g of t h eir a ct iv it ies. In cr ea sin gly, p r ov id er s m u st s a t isfy “con su m er d em a n d ” in a con st r a in ed econ om ic clim a t e w h er e gover n m en t -d et er m in ed n a t ion a l a n d loca l fu n d in g p r ior it ies a r e im p osed . In a d d it ion , t h ey n eed t o m eet t h e “q u a lit y ” im p er a t ive: en su r in g t h a t cou r ses a r e d eliver ed , m on i-t or ed a n d eva lu a i-t ed w ii-t h a focu s on h igh q u a lit y p r ov ision – h ow ever t h a t m ost elu sive a n d va lu e-la d en “q u a lit y ” con ce p t is d efi n ed (P feffer a n d Coot e, 1991).

As w ell a s ch a n ged p olicy a n d a n ew le gisla -t ive fr a m ewor k , sever a l -t r a in in g in i-t ia -t ives h ave en cou r a ged a r efr a m in g of p r ofession a l (a n d in p a r t icu la r, m a n a gem en t ) d evelop m en t . T h e n eed for gr ea t er “sit eb a sed ” m a n -a gem en t t r -a in in g -a n d s u p p or t h -a s b een -a r t ic-u la t ed by, a m on g ot h er s, t h e Sch ool Ma n a ge-m en t Ta s k For ce (SMTF ) r e p or t (DE S, 1990), a n d t h er e h a s a ls o b een con sid er a ble p r es-s u r e t o exp lor e com p et en ce-b a es-sed m a n a ge-m en t t r a in in g a n d a s sess ge-m en t – ege-m a n a t in g p a r t icu la r ly fr om t h e De p a r t m en t of E m p loy -m en t (DOE ), De p a r t -m en t for E d u ca t ion (DfE ) a n d t h e Ma n a gem en t Ch a r t er In it ia t ive (E a r -ley, 1992; E lliot t , 1991; Gea ly, 1993; Wh it t y a n d Willm ot t , 1991).

E a ch of t h es e in it ia t ives h a s b r oa d en ed t h e d eb a t e over ch a n gin g t h e “lea r n in g clim a t e”, a lt h ou gh it is in cr ea sin gly clea r t h a t , in m a n y ca s es, in su fficien t a t t en t ion h a s b een p a id t o d evelop in g w h a t m igh t b e ca lled t h e “lea r n -in g su p p or t en v ir on m en t ”, -in clu d -in g, for exa m p le, t h e p r ov ision of lib r a r y fa cilit ies for d ist a n ce lea r n er s (Un w in , 1994). P ot en t ia l s t u d en t s a r e t h u s in cr ea sin gly en cou r a ged t o d em a n d m or e fl exiblebu t b esp ok e q u a lifi ca -t ion s – fr om a n in cr ea sin gly w id en in g n a t ion a l r a n ge of h igh er ed u ca t ion (H E ) cou r se p or t folios w h er e d ist a n ce is n o ob ject bu t su p p or t m ech a n ism s ca n n ot n ecessa r ily b e gu a r a n t eed .

Un d ou b t ed ly, h ow ever, t h e m os t im p or t a n t in fl u en ce on t h is r efr a m in g of p r ofession a l d evelop m en t p r ov ision h a s b een t h e ch a n ged p olicy a n d fu n d in g fr a m ewor k in w h ich H E , F E , LE As a n d p r iva t e “con su lt a n cy ” p r ov id er s n ow op er a t e. We h ave seen t h e effect ive “p r iva t iza t ion of IN SE T” (H a r la n d et a l., 1993) w it h it s d evelop in g com p et it ive, p r ice-cu t t in g b ia s; t h e d isa p p ea r a n ce of t ea ch er r elea se a n d secon d m en t (DfE , 1993b ); a n d a n a ssocia t ed r is e in self-fu n d ed , in com e-gen er a t in g d evelop m en t . All t h is h a s

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Sue Law

in st it u t ion a l r a t ion a liza t ion of t ea ch in g s u p -p or t in a con st r a in ed fi n a n cia l clim a t e. T h er e is, in s h or t , a n in cr ea sed em p h a sis on op en , fl exible a n d d is t a n ce lea r n in g – w it h t h e Op en Un iver sit y fa cin g a n a lb eit lim it ed ch a llen ge t o w h a t h a s b een , for m or e t h a n 20 yea r s, it s ow n “fl exible lea r n in g m on op oly ”. As id e fr om lon gt er m p r ofes sion a l d evelop -m en t cou r s es a n d p r ogr a -m -m es, t h e cu r r en t com p et it ive et h os h a s a lso p r es s u r ed p r o-v id er s t o offer, in t e gr a t e (a n d , im p or t a n t ly, a ccr ed it ) h a lf- a n d on e-d ay “lea r n in g e p is od es ” (Day, 1991) – t h e k in d of

p r ofes s ion a l s u p p or t n ow less ea s ily m et by r est r u ct u r ed LE As. T h e r es ea r ch ev id en ce on w h ich t h is a r t icle is b a sed s h ow s t h a t in d iv id -u a l t ea ch er s a s “ed -u ca t ion clien t s ” w it h s ign ifi ca ign t bu y iign g p ow er a r e iign cr ea siign gly a d op t -in g p r a gm a t ic, p r a ct ica l a n d ca r eer -r ela t ed p r ofes s ion a l p er sp ect ives, d er iv in g in la r ge p a r t fr om ch a n ges in fu n d in g a t b ot h p er son a l a n d in st it u t ion a l level w h ich a r e a fea t u r e of t h e m a r k et iza t ion of ed u ca t ion . Tea ch -er s, m or e t h a n ev-er b efor e, a r e n ow p r e p a r ed t o s ea r ch for cost -effect ive a n d t a ilor -m a d e p ost gr a d u a t e p r ogr a m m es w h ich m a t ch t h eir ow n p er s on a l n eed s – a n d p ock et s. Wh ile m a n y m ay con t in u e t o op t for t h eir loca l p r ov id er, t h is is n o lon ger a n in ev it a ble d eci-sion : a s ign ifi ca n t n u m b er a r e p r e p a r ed t o “p lay t h e fi eld ” b efor e ch oosin g a cou r s e.

Con fr on t ed w it h a bu yer ’s m a r k et , a n d in or d er t o s ecu r e or if p os s ible exp a n d t h eir “clien t ” b a s e, p r ov id er s a r e n ow k een er t o b e seen a s ca t er in g for t h ose w ish in g t o a d op t a “lifelon g lea r n in g” focu s a n d com m it t ed t o gr a s p in g “fl exible lea r n in g” op p or t u n it ies. Su ch s t r a t e gies d o, h ow ever, m ea n t h a t p r ov id er m en u s a r e in cr ea sin gly fr a m ed by a n on goin g in st a b ilit y (p a r t icu la r ly a s p r ofes-sion a l d evelop m en t p olicy is su b ject ed t o r a p id ch a n ge u n d er t h e a u s p ices of t h e Tea ch er T r a in in g Agen cy ), even if t h ey en a ble clien t s t o t a k e r es p on s ib ilit y for t h eir ow n lea r n in g a n d p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t , a n d t o d evelop b r oa d er a n d m or e p er s on a lly sa t isfy in g t r a n s fer a ble s k ills.

T h is is a p a r t icu la r ly im p or t a n t d evelop -m en t for w h a t con t in u es t o b e a r ela t ively u n d er p a id a n d im m ob ile t ea ch in g for ce – on e w h ich is oft en lim it ed in op t ion by econ om ic r eces s ion a n d p ot en t ia lly r es t r ict ive ca r eer d evelop m en t p r os p ect s (N a t ion a l Com m is -sion on E d u ca t ion , 1993, p p. 221-3). P u t cr u d ely, t h e op t ion s for u n iver s it ies a r e b ecom in g m or e a n d m or e clea r : exp a n d a n d d iver sify you r p r ov ision in t o “n ich e” a r ea s if n eces s a r y, over com e you r t r a d it ion a l geo-gr a p h ica l con st r a in t s, or r is k a p ot en t ia l con t r a ct ion of you r s t u d en t m a r k et .

For t h e old er (i.e. n on p oly t ech n ic) u n iver -sit ies, t h e d evelop m en t of fl exible-lea r n in g

cou r se p r ogr a m m es m ay seem a d ifficu lt p r osp ect b eca u se of t h e p er ce p t ion t h a t t r a d i-t ion a l n oi-t ion s of “a ca d em ic excellen ce” n eed t o b e m a in t a in ed a n d d efen d ed fr om “fl exib il-it y ”. T h is con ce p t ion of r ole h a s, som eh ow, t o b e r econ ciled w it h t h e “m a r k et -d r iven ” n eed t o est a blis h cr ed ible lea r n in g st r a t e gies for t h e n ew en t r e p r en eu r ia l clim a t e, m ost of w h ich a r e a lr ea dy cu r r en t in t h e b est fl exi-ble/ d ist a n ce-lea r n in g in st it u t ion s (Dixon , 1987; H od gson et a l., 1987; P a in e, 1989; Ra ce, 1986).

For old er u n iver sit ies t h e focu s h a s r est ed on r et a in in g w h a t is p er ceived t o b e q u a lit y p r ov ision a n d a ca d em ic r e p u t a t ion , w h ile m a xim izin g st u d en t a u t on om y a n d lea r n er -d ir ect e-d n es s. N ew er u n iver sit ies, in m a n y r esp ect s, fa ce t h e op p osit e p r oblem s : a CNAA b a ck gr ou n d a n d a ca d em ica lly b r oa d -b a sed st u d en t p op u la t ion s h ave en cou r a ged m or e h igh ly d iver sifi ed lea r n in g s t r a t e gies, w h ile t h e som et im es lim it ed r esea r ch b a se in ex-p oly t ech n ics h a s in it ia t ed q u est ion s a b ou t t h e n a t u r e, q u a lit y a n d d e p t h of t h eir “a ca d em ic excellen ce”. As a w ay of exp lor in g fu r -t h er som e of -t h ese iss u es, -t h e n ex-t s ec-t ion exa m in es t h e p r ior it ies a n d con cer n s of p ot en t ia l cu st om er s for d ist a n ce-lea r n in g p r ov ision in ed u ca t ion m a n a gem en t .

Developing diversity: identifying

the issues

Keele Un iver sit y, w h er e t h e a u t h or w a s Dir ec-t or of In -ser v ice E d u ca ec-t ion , w a s on e of ec-t h e fi r st t r a n ch e of old er u n iver sit ies in E n gla n d a n d Wa les t o join t h e d is t a n celea r n in g ed u -ca t ion m a r k et a t t h e en d of t h e 1980s. It s MBA ed u ca t ion , la u n ch ed in 1991, w a s t h e fi r st p a r t -t im e, d ist a n ce-lea r n in g MBA in E n gla n d sp ecifi ca lly d esign ed for ed u ca t ion ist s. It w a s follow ed , a yea r la t er, by a s im ila r ly st r u c-t u r ed MA (ed u ca c-t ion m a n a gem en c-t ) p r o-gr a m m e t a r get ed a t t h e n eed s of m id d le a n d a sp ir in g m a n a ger s in ed u ca t ion .

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Sue Law

Res p on d en t s r a n k ed a lis t of gen er a l fea -t u r es of d is-t a n ce-lea r n in g cou r s es a n d gave st r u ct u r ed r es p on s es on t h e q u a lit a t ive a s p ect s of cou r s es a s t h ey p er ceived t h em t h r ou gh t h e lit er a t u r e t h ey h a d r eceived . F u r t h er, m a n y t ook u p op p or t u n it ies t o r esp on d t o op en en d ed q u es t ion s. T h e q u es -t ion n a ir e a lso in v i-t ed -t h em -t o give -t h eir a d d r es s/ geogr a p h ica l loca t ion a n d gen d er if t h ey w is h ed .

Of t h e 60 r es p on s es r eceived (r e p r es en t in g a 30 p er cen t r es p on s e r a t e), 25 r et u r n s ca m e fr om m a les, 22 fr om fem a les a n d 13 w er e of u n s p ecifi ed gen d er. N o r em in d er s w er e sen t . Wh er e r es u lt s a r e r e p or t ed in t h is a r t icle, p er cen t a ges a r e p r ov id ed a lon g w it h n u m b er s in or d er t o a llow for com p a r is on . Clea r ly, h ow ever, it is v it a l t o n ot e t h a t a n y con clu -sion s d r aw n w h ich a r e b a s ed on p er cen t a ge/ n u m er ica l r es u lt s n eed t o b e t r ea t ed w it h som e ca u t ion .

Res p on s es w er e r eceived fr om a s fa r a fi eld a s E xet er t o t h e Sh et la n d Is la n d s, a lt h ou gh on efi ft h of r et u r n s w er e fr om p ot en t ia l s t u -d en t s liv in g w it h in 30 m iles of t h e Un iver s it y. T h is a r t icle s u m m a r izes t h e r es ea r ch fi n d -in gs -in t h e b elief t h a t , fi r st , t h ey m ay h elp fu r t h er t h e n a t ion a l d eb a t e a b ou t t h e n a t u r e of effect ive lea r n in g s t r a t e gies a n d , s econ d , t h ey m ay con t r ibu t e t o a b et t er u n d er st a n d -in g of st u d en t m ot iva t ion , su cces sfu l cou r s e or ga n iza t ion a n d t h e d es id er a t a of q u a lit y m a t er ia ls (T h or p e a n d Gr u geon , 1989). It is a lso r ecogn ized t h a t t h e gr ou p s u r veyed w er e effect ively “s elf-s elect ed ” p ot en t ia l d ist a n ce lea r n er s, s in ce t h ey h a d a lr ea dy r eq u est ed in for m a t ion on d ist a n ce-lea r n in g p r ogr a m m es a n d w er e obv iou s ly s er iou s ly con -t em p la -t in g s u ch a lea r n in g s -t r a -t e gy.

Un d ou b t ed ly a st r on g r a t ion a le r em a in s for sit e-b a s ed op p or t u n it ies bu t t h is a r t icle p os it s t h a t , in t h e n ea r fu t u r e, t r a d it ion a l p r a ct ices w ill b e in cr ea sin gly in fl u en ced in t h eir cou r s e m et h od ologies, a t t en d a n ce r eq u ir em en t s a n d a s sess m en t st r a t e gies, by a n exp a n d in g d ist a n ce-lea r n in g m a r k et . We n ow b r iefl y exa m in e t h e con t ext w it h in w h ich n ew d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion d evelop m en t s a r e t a k in g p la ce.

The context for distance

education developments

Wh ile t h e d is t a n ce ed u ca t ion t r a d it ion is r ela t ively lon gs t a n d in g w it h in E n gla n d a n d Wa les – es t a blish ed la r gely t h r ou gh t h e dy n a m ic of t h e Op en Un iver s it y – t h e gr ow in g b r ea d t h a n d va r iet y of p r ov ision w it h in Br it is h u n iver sit ies is a r ela t ively r ecen t p h en om en on . P er h a p s u n d er st a n d a bly – a n d in com m on w it h exp er ien ce elsew h er e in t h e

wor ld – n o sin gle a n d a gr eed d efi n it ion of “d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion ” exis t s. H olm b er g (1993) su ggest s t h a t it “cover s t h e va r iou s for m s of st u dy a t a ll levels w h ich a r e n ot u n d er t h e con t in u ou s, im m ed ia t e su p er v ision of t u t or s p r esen t w it h t h eir st u d en t s in lect u r e r oom s or on t h e sa m e p r em is es, bu t w h ich n ever t h e-less b en efi t fr om t h e p la n n in g, gu id a n ce a n d t u it ion of a t u t or ia l or ga n iza t ion ”. F u r t h er -m or e, h e a sser t s, “t h er e a r e d iffer en t k in d s of d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion , a n d it is im p or t a n t t o r ea lize t h a t even seem in gly p a r a llel sy st em s in clu d e d iffer en t com p on en t s a n d m ed ia ” (H olm b er g, 1995, p. 202).

T h e d ifficu lt y in set t lin g on on e u n iver sa l d efi n it ion is r efl ect ed in t h e fa ct t h a t a r a n ge of t er m s is u sed in t er ch a n gea bly. T h e con ce p t of “op en lea r n in g” is in cr ea s in gly u sed a s a n a lt er n a t ive t er m t o b ot h d is t a n ce ed u ca t ion a n d d ist a n ce lea r n in g w it h in t h e Br it ish con t ext a n d t h is a p p r oa ch , a t lea st t o som e d e gr ee, r efl ect s t h e im p a ct of t h e Op en Un iver sit y ’s r ole on p u blic a n d ed u ca t ion a l p er -ce p t ion s (T h or p e, 1988, p. 56). T h is p a p er, for exa m p le, u ses t h e t er m “d ist a n ce lea r n in g” in t er ch a n gea bly w it h “d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion ”. Som e w r it er s con sid er t h a t d is t a n ce ed u ca -t ion is sim p ly a su b d iv ision of op en lea r n in g (Lew is a n d Sp en cer, 1986, p. 8), a lt h ou gh t h is v iew h a s b een ch a llen ged on t h e b a sis t h a t n ot a ll d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion is n ecessa r ily “op en ” (H olm b er g, 1993). H ow ever, Da n iel (1993) a r gu es t h a t “op en lea r n in g is a goa l or a n id ea l; d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion is n eu t r a l, it ca n eit h er b e op en or clos ed , fl exible or in fl exible, d e p en d in g on t h e cou r se or t h e sy st em ”. Mor eover, t h er e is a lon gst a n d in g d eb a t e r e ga r d in g p r ecisely w h a t con st it u t es t h e b ou n d a r ies of d ist a n ce t ea ch in g, d ist a n ce lea r n in g a n d d ist a n ce s t u dy. H olm b er g (1985), for exa m p le, su ggest s t h a t w h ile “d ist a n ce st u dy ” cen t r es on t h e st u d en t a ct iv it ies, “d ist a n ce ist ea ch in g” focu ses on ist u ist or in g a n d ist u ist or -ia l or ga n iza t ion .

T h e t wo k ey elem en t s n or m a lly a ssocia t ed w it h t h e d is t a n ce ed u ca t ion p r oces s – t h a t of p r ep r od u ced cou r s e m a t er ia ls a n d st u d en t -t u -t or com m u n ica -t ion – a r e cen -t r a l fea -t u r es in m a n y cou r se st r u ct u r es. Des p it e con cer n s t h a t d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion m ay b e t oo r ea d ily focu sed on k n ow led ge t r a n sfer a n d fa ct a ssim ila t ion (Fox, 1983, p. 15), a n in cr ea sin g b ody of ev id en ce in d ica t es t h a t d ist a n ce ed u -ca t ion h a s t h e p ot en t ia l t o p r om ot e effect ive lea r n in g in t h a t it is a ble t o en ga ge st u d en t s fu lly – t o t h e b en efi t of b ot h t h eir in t ellect u a l a n d em ot ion a l d evelop m en t (Kee ga n , 1993; Lock wood , 1995).

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t u t or a n d s t u d en t h ave a sign ifi ca n t im p a ct on t h e effect iven es s of t h e a ct iv it y a n d b en efi t s t o s t u d en t s. T h e d a n ger w it h lin ea r -focu sed a n d over ly self-con t a in ed cou r se t ext s is t h a t t h ey d o n ot en cou r a ge, fa cilit a t e or even p r ov id e a cces s t o a lt er n a t ive sou r ces of id ea s a n d a r gu m en t . N ever t h eles s, w h ile cou r s e p r ov id er s clea r ly n eed t o p ay clos e a t t en t ion t o b ot h t h e a cces s ib ilit y a n d t h e va r iet y of t h e cou r se su p p or t m a t er ia ls t h ey p r ov id e, By n n er (1986) h a s p oin t ed t o t h e effect iven es s of d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion a t Ma s-t er ’s level w is-t h in u n iver s is-t ies.

Clea r ly, in est a blis h in g t h eir p r ogr a m m es, d is t a n ce ed u ca t or s h ave t o a d d r es s t h e n eed s of b ot h gr ou p s a n d in d iv id u a ls. H ow ever, a ccor d in g t o H olm b er g (1995):

t h er e is n o ev id en ce t h a t d is t a n ce s t u d en t s s h ou ld b e r e ga r d ed a s a h om ogen eou s gr ou p. T h e on ly com m on fa ct or is t h a t , w it h few exce p t ion s, t h es e s t u d en t s a r e a d u lt s a n d con s eq u en t ly a r e ga in fu lly em p loyed a n d / or look a ft er t h eir fa m ilies (p. 12).

Wh a t H olm b er g (1993) ca lls “gr ou p t h in k in g” (w h er e s t u d en t s s t u dy in g a t a d is t a n ce a r e t r ea t ed a s p a r t of a gr ou p ) t en d s t o lea d t o a m or e con t r ol-or ien t ed m od el of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g – w it h fi xed st a r t in gp oin t s, a s s ign -m en t d ea d lin es, cou r se d u r a t ion a n d exa -m in a t ioin s (Leslie, 1979). T h e a lt er in a t ive st r a t -e gy, w h -er -eby in d iv id u a l st u d -en t s a r -e r e ga r d ed a s t ot a lly a u t on om ou s – e.g. d et er m in in g t h eir ow n st u dy p r ogr a m m es, t im et a bles, s u b m is sion d ea d lin es a n d level of com -m u n ica t ion s w it h t h e t ea ch in g or ga n iza t ion – is a ls o u t ilized a n d is p r ob a bly t h e m os t com -m on a p p r oa ch in t er n a t ion a lly (Gr a ff a n d H olm b er g, 1988).

Wh ile a n “in d iv id u a lized ” focu s m ay p r e-d om in a t e on a glob a l sca le, it is n ot u n u s u a l for t h e t wo s t r a t e gies t o b e u t ilized in a n over -la p p in g m a n n er (H olm b er g, 1985, p p. 8-10) a n d t h er e is ev id en ce t h a t , w h ile m or e a u t on o-m ou s in d iv id u a ls a r e lik ely t o b e p a r t icu la r ly a t t r a ct ed t o d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion , t h ey d o n ot n eces s a r ily r eject gu id a n ce (M oor e, 1976, cit ed in H olm b er g, 1993). Over a ll, r es ea r ch (e.g. F lin ck , 1980; Gla t t er a n d Wed ell, 1971; Wood ley, 1983) in d ica t es t h a t a d u lt s t u d en t s oft en p r efer d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion over ca m p u s-b a s ed a p p r oa ch es la r gely s-b eca u s e of t h e:

con ven ien ce, fl exib ilit y a n d a d a p t a b ilit y of t h is m od e of ed u ca t ion t o in d iv id u a l s t u -d en t s ’ n ee-d s. A p r e-d ilect ion for en t ir ely in d iv id u a l wor k is fr eq u en t ly r efer r ed t o… a p p a r en t ly a m a jor it y of st u d en t s in d evel-op ed cou n t r ies, w h ich d o offer r ea l ch oices, ch oos e d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion b eca u se t h ey gen u in ely p r efer it t o ot h er m od es. T h is is, of cou r s e, t o b e exp ect ed fr om a d u lt s w h os e fa m ily, p r ofession a l a n d socia l com m it m en t s m a k e fa ce-t o-fa ce t ea ch in g, b ou n d by a fi xed

t im et a ble, les s a t t r a ct ive or u n r ea lis t ic (H olm b er g, 1995).

In a d d it ion , w h ile r ecen t d evelop m en t s in m ed ia t ech n ologies, e.g. t elecon fer en cin g, h ave st im u la t ed in cr ea sed in t er est in t h e p ot en t ia l of d is t a n ce ed u ca t ion a m on g p ot en -t ia l p r ov id er s, -t h er e is ev id en ce -t h a -t s-t u d en -t s s t ill p r efer in d iv id u a lized st u dy – p r ed om in a in t ly u t iliziin g p r iin t ed st u dy m a t er ia l (Ga r -r ison , 1990, p. 15).

Analysing the results

Rating distance-learning provision Resp on d en t s w er e a sk ed t o r a n k seven fea t u r es of d is t a n ce lea r n in g in or d er of im p or -t a n ce -t o -t h em selves. T h e r esu l-t s sh ow -t h a -t t h er e is a m a r k ed bu n ch in g of r es p on ses for ea ch fea t u r e, u su a lly w it h t h r ee a d join in g r a n k p osit ion s a ccou n t in g for t h e m a jor it y of r esp on ses. T h ese a r e given in Ta ble I.

Ot h er r ea s on s w er e given in n in e

r esp on ses, w it h fou r com m en t in g on t h e la ck of loca l op p or t u n it y, t wo on t h e n eed t o u t ilize in d e p en d en t lea r n in g sk ills, a n d a fu r t h er t h r ee seein g t h e p r ov is ion a s r eleva n t t o p er -son a l p r ofession a l n eed s. T h e m a jor st r en gt h of d is t a n ce lea r n in g is seen by r esp on d en t s a s b ein g in t h e a b ilit y t o wor k a t h om e a t t h eir ow n p a ce. Su b seq u en t com m en t s a lso su ggest t h a t fl exible st a r t -d a t es a r e a n im p or t a n t con sid er a t ion a s p ot en t ia l p ost gr a d u a t es a t t em p t t o b a la n ce s t u dy p r ogr a m m es w it h p r ofes sion a l r oles a n d r esp on sib ilit ies.

Bou d (1990, p. 6) a sser t s t h a t “lea r n in g for m ea n in g a n d t igh t t ea ch er con t r ol sit u n ea s ily t oget h er. Lea r n er s m u st m a k e t h eir ow n m a p s of k n ow led ge”. How ever, t h e fi n e b a la n ce of p r ess u r es b et w een en cou r a gin g st u d en t a u t on om y a n d p r ov id in g a t igh t cou r se st r u ct u r e ca n b e d ifficu lt t o a t t a in : a s on e su r vey r es p on d en t com m en t s: “Th e st r u ct u r e is r ea lly im p or t a n t t o m e. I w a n t som et h in g t o k ee p m e goin g bu t w it h ou t t oo m u ch fr eed om or I m igh t n ot d o it ”. T h e issu e of a ch iev in g t h is b a la n ce h a s b een r ev iew ed by Da n iel a n d Ma r q u is (1979):

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T h e Keele p r ogr a m m e en d eavou r s t o ca p it a l-ize on b ot h con t r ol a n d a u t on om y s t r a t e gies. It d oes s o, on t h e on e sid e, by p r ov id in g ea ch coh or t of s t u d en t s (i.e. t h ose join in g a t t h e sa m e t im e) w it h a clea r ly st r u ct u r ed t ea ch in g a n d a s s es s m en t fr a m ewor k ca p a ble, for exa m -p le, of m a xim izin g gr ou -p n et wor k in g a n d su p p or t op p or t u n it ies. H ow ever, on t h e ot h er, it a ls o fa cilit a t es in d iv id u a l st u d en t a u t on -om y by offer in g t h e p ot en t ia l for p er s on a lized a n d fl exible p r ogr a m m e d esign a n d t h r ou gh op p or t u n it ies t o a d op t a s low t r a ck in g a p p r oa ch w h en , for p r ofes sion a l a n d / or fa m -ily r ea s on s, s t u d en t s m ay b ecom e s e p a r a t ed fr om t h eir or igin a l coh or t or su p p or t gr ou p. Over a ll, r esp on d en t s s ee op p or t u n it ies for h om eb a s ed st u dy a s t h e m os t a t t r a ct ive fea -t u r e of d is -t a n ce ed u ca -t ion , com m en -t in g on , for exa m p le, “t h e avoid a n ce of t r a ffic” a n d “t h e n eed t o fi n d a cou r s e w h ich is com p a t ible w it h t h e n eed t o r em a in a t h om e”. A h igh er p er cen t a ge of fem a les em p h a size t h e im p or t a n ce of h om eb a sed st u dy – 78 p er cen t com p a r ed w it h 68 p er cen t of m a les a n d , fu r t h er -m or e, n in e of t h e 12 loca l r es p on d en t s w er e fem a le, s u gges t in g p er h a p s a n a t t em p t t o exp lor e fl exible, loca l op p or t u n it ies so t h a t t h e b en efi t s of b ot h loca lit y a n d d ist a n ce lea r n in g ca n b e exp loit ed fu lly. P r os p ect ive st u d en t s a r e a lso a t t r a ct ed by “wor k in g w it h p r es t igiou s or ga n isa t ion s”, t h e ava ila b ilit y of “cou r s es w h ich a r e b en efi cia l in con t en t ” a n d t h e “op p or t u n it y of u s in g in d e p en d en t lea r n -in g s k ills ”.

P r os p ect ive st u d en t s con s id er ed t h a t t h e secon d m os t a t t r a ct ive fea t u r e w a s t h e a b ilit y t o d et er m in e on e’s ow n t im et a ble. P er cen t a ge r esp on s es for m en a n d wom en w er e sim ila r, w it h t im e b ein g con s id er ed on ly s ligh t ly m or e im p or t a n t in r a n k in g t h a n b ein g a ble t o u n d er t a k e a cou r se w it h ou t a t t en d in g fr eq u en t cou r s e s ession s. Wh ile d ist a n ce ed u ca -t ion s aves s-t u d en -t -t im e a n d ca n b e effec-t ive for lea r n in g, it d oes, n ever t h eles s, in cr ea se t h e n eed t o p r ov id e “m or e t im e, s k ill a n d a p p lica t ion on t h e p a r t of t h e t u t or t h a n m ay

n or m a lly b e fou n d in ‘essay m a r k in g’ on ca m p u s” (E lt on , 1988).

Con cer n a b ou t t h e q u a lit y of cou r s e m a t er i-a ls is r efl ect ed in r esp on ses t o li-a t er su r vey q u est ion s, bu t , s u r p r isin gly p er h a p s, is n ot given a h igh r a n k in g a s a fea t u r e of d ist a n ce lea r n in g p r ov ision by r esp on d en t s. In r efl ect in g on d ist a n celea r n in g a s a con ce p t , h ow -ever, r esp on d en t s p la ce cos t a n d a ss essm en t r ela t ed t o wor k / p r ofession a l r ole a s even less im p or t a n t . Alt h ou gh t h ey a lso r a n k su p p or t in t h e b r oa d es t sen se fr om t h eir ow n in st it u -t ion lea s-t im p or -t a n -t of a ll, a -t -t h is s-t a ge i-t is, n ever t h eless, a ct u a lly s een a s a n im p or t a n t fa ct or in d et er m in in g w h et h er t o em b a r k on a cou r se. T h e d efi n it ion of “su p p or t ” en com -p a sses b ot h t im e a lloca t ion a n d fi n a n cia l su p p or t in r esp on d en t s’ op en com m en t s, bu t d oes n ot n ecess a r ily im p ly a n a b d ica t ion of in st it u t ion a l r es p on sib ilit y or con t r ol.

T h e issu e of t h e b a la n ce b et w een su p p or t for lea r n in g a n d t h e n a t u r e of in st it u t ion a l r esp on sib ilit y r em a in s a com p lex on e. Gillia r d (1991) a r gu es t h a t “lea r n in g in d is-t a n ce ed u ca is-t ion is s u p er v ised bu is-t n ois-t in v igi-la t ed , or ga n ised bu t n ot con t r olled , s t u d en t cen t r ed bu t n ot a n a r ch ic”. H ow ever, P et er s (1973) a r gu es t h a t t h e con ce p t of d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion d oes n ot n ecessa r ily d is p el t h e p ow er r ela t ion sh ip b et w een t h e in st it u t ion a n d t h e lea r n er, sin ce it is n ot “d om in a n ce-fr ee lea r n in g”.

T h e n ot ion of su p p or t h a s b een a k ey ele-m en t in est a blish in g d ist a n ce-lea r n in g cou r ses in ed u ca t ion m a n a gem en t a t Keele. In a d d it ion , t h e cou r s e p h ilosop h y in cor p o-r a t es t h e n ot ion of em p a t h y – d efi n ed by H olm b er g (1993) a s t h e “p ow er of p r oject in g on eself in t o a n d u n d er st a n d in g som eon e else’s t h in k in g a n d feelin g” – a s fu n d a m en t a l in d evelop in g effect ive d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion p r ogr a m m es, w it h cou r se in for m a t ion en d eavou r in g t o com m u n ica t e t h a t em p a t h y a n d s t u d en t su p p or t a s a r e k ey a sp ect s of Keele’s p r ofession a l et h os.

Checking the market and choosing a course

Resp on d en t s w er e a sk ed t o r a n k u p t o t en fea t u r es of cou r se p r ov ision w h ich m igh t in fl u en ce t h eir d ecis ion t o ch oose a p a r t icu la r cou r se, w it h t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of t h e fea -t u r es b ein g b a s ed on cu r r en -t b es-t p r a c-t ice. Gen d er -r ela t ed r et u r n s t o t h is sect ion of t h e q u es t ion n a ir e sh ow ed few d iffer en ces b et w een m a le a n d fem a le r esp on d en t s. H ow -ever, t h er e is a ga in a clea r gr ou p in g of r esp on s es a r ou n d t h r ee con t igu ou s r a n k or d er s w h ich su ggest s t h a t t h e v iew s of com -p a r a t ive im -p or t a n ce m u s t b e a sign ifi ca n t in d ica t or of op in ion . Resu lt s a r e given in Ta ble II.

Table I

Ranking o f dis tanc e -le arning fe ature s

Rank order

High value Low value

Features 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Home-based study 3 3 1 0 5 4 3 3 0 0

Setting own time/ pace 6 1 8 1 0 1 2 8 2 0 0

Course cost 6 7 6 4 1 2 7 9 0

No need to attend frequently 5 8 1 4 1 1 9 7 9 0

Assessment related to role 5 8 1 0 7 1 1 1 1 5 0

Good quality materials 5 4 8 1 4 8 9 5 0

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Ad d it ion a l r ea son s offer ed by t en p ot en t ia l st u d en t s in clu d ed t h e “com m it m en t ” r eq u ir e-m en t of a given cou r s e, it s p r ev iou s st a t u s a n d r ecor d , a n d it s r eleva n ce t o p r om ot ion a l a n d p r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t n eed s. T h e im p or t a n ce of cou r s e con t en t is s u m m a r ized by on e r es p on d en t a s it s “r eleva n ce t o m y exp er ien ce a n d m y fu t u r e n eed s ”.

Resp on d en t s r e ga r d ed cou r s e cos t s a s a n im p or t a n t fa ct or in ch oosin g b et w een

cou r s es, a lt h ou gh t h er e is a sp r ea d of r a n k in g on t h is a s a fa ct or. T h e cost effect iven es s of p r ov is ion fr om a s t u d en t ’s p er s p ect ive ca n on ly b e id en t ifi ed by d et er m in in g p r ecis ely w h a t is offer ed w it h in t h e d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion p a ck a ge. H olm b er g (1995) p oin t s ou t t h a t “p u r e cor r es p on d en ce st u dy, r ely in g exclu -sively on t h e w r it t en wor d a s it s m ed iu m , ca n b e ver y in exp en s ive if it is offer ed on a la r ge sca le, s o t h a t t h e cost of ea ch cou r se ca n b e sp r ea d ou t over sever a l t h ou sa n d s t u d en t s”, bu t n ot es t h a t m or e com p lex or sop h ist ica t ed sy s t em s b r in g h igh er cos t s. Com m en t a r ies in su r vey r es p on ses in d ica t e t h a t a n u m b er of p r os p ect ive st u d en t s u n d er t a k e a fa ir ly com -p lex cost -b en efi t a n a ly sis t o d et er m in e t h e cou r s e t h ey w ill follow. T h e on goin g d eb a t e over t h e econ om ics of d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion (Kee ga n , 1990; P er r a t on , 1982; Ru m ble, 1986), r efl ect s t h e fa ct t h a t t h e com p lexit ies of cost -b en efi t a n a ly ses a r e a lso cr u cia l iss u es for p r ov id in g in st it u t ion s :

It is p os sibly on ly t o cla im t h a t t h er e a r e cir cu m s t a n ces in w h ich d is t a n ce t ea ch in g look s a t t r a ct ive fr om a n econ om ic p oin t of v iew. E con om ies of sca le a r e p ossible. Bu t d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion ch a r a ct er ist ica lly h a s h igh fi xed cost s a n d , w it h r ela t ively low s t u d en t n u m b er s, it s cost s ca n b e h igh er t h a n t h ose of con ven t ion a l ed u ca t ion . (P er -r a t on , 1982, p. 61)

Resp on s es r e ga r d in g t h e n eed for cou r se a t t en d a n ce w er e w id ely s p r ea d in t er m s of r a n k in g, a lt h ou gh a n u m b er of r es p on d en t s b elieve t h a t it ca n “give t h e op p or t u n it y t o r ed u ce t h e is ola t ion you feel in d oin g you r

ow n wor k ”. Ot h er s, h ow ever, con cu r w it h t h e com m en t t h a t “a t t en d a n ce d est r oy s t h e r ea l m ea n in g of d ist a n ce lea r n in g”. T h e n a t u r e of t h e st u dy p r ogr a m m e, t h e p er ceived q u a lit y of m a t er ia ls a n d t h e cla r it y a n d d e p t h of cou r se in for m a t ion a r e less sign ifi ca n t ch oice fa ct or s over a ll. In a d d it ion , t u t or su p p or t , a st u d en t su p p or t n et wor k a n d cou r s e office b a ck u p, a r e a ll r a n k ed a s m u ch less im p or -t a n -t in ch oosin g b e-t w een cou r ses, a l-t h ou gh sever a l op en com m en t s d o r efer t o “t h e ava il-a b ilit y of som e sy st em of su p p or t fr om ot h er st u d en t s”, a n d t h e id ea t h a t t h e “fi r st p oin t of con t a ct t ells you so m u ch ”.

Ch oice b et w een cou r ses is b a sed , a b ove a ll, on cou r se con t en t . T h er ea ft er, it a p p ea r s t h a t st u d en t s focu s on cost is su es, oft en in volv in g som e k in d of cost -effect iven ess eva lu a t ion . T h is p oin t s t o t h e n eed for p r ov id er s t o u t ilize p u blicit y m a t er ia ls st r essin g b ot h t h e t a n gible a n d in t a n gigible b en efi t s of cou r ses. Over -a ll, su r vey r esu lt s in d ic-a t e t h -a t r esp on d en t s a r e seek in g self-con t a in ed a n d w ell-st r u c-t u r ed cou r ses, w ic-t h a s m a n y p oc-t en c-t ia l cu s-t om er s a s-t s-t r a cs-t ed by a r esid en s-t ia l elem en s-t a s in h ib it ed by t h e n eed t o a t t en d cou r s e ses-sion s.

Resp on d en t s h a d con t a ct ed w id ely va r y in g n u m b er s of in s t it u t ion s in or d er t o secu r e in for m a t ion , a s s h ow n in Ta ble III. Alt h ou gh t h e m a jor it y h a d con t a ct ed t h r ee or m or e p r ov id er s, 12 h a d con t a ct ed on ly t h eir n ea r est u n iver s it y – w it h in t h e 30-m ile r a d iu s – r efl ect in g w h a t m igh t b e ca lled a “m od ifi ed d ist a n ce-lea r n in g w is h ”.

Wid ely d iffer in g op in ion s exist r e ga r d in g t h e n a t u r e of cou r se in for m a t ion s en t by p r ov id er s in r esp on se t o en q u ir ies. H a lf of r esp on d en t s fou n d d ist a n celea r n in g in for -m a t ion p a ck s -m or e i-m p r es sive t h a n t h ose offer ed for m or e t r a d it ion a l p r ov ision

b eca u se of t h e “com p r eh en s iven ess of d et a il”, p r esen t a t ion a n d cla r it y of exp la n a t ion , a n d t h e “u ser -fr ien d ly a p p r oa ch ”.

On e-fi ft h of r es p on d en t s felt t h a t t h er e w er e m a jor d efi cien cies in som e of t h e in for m a t ion p a ck s t h ey h a d r eceived , in clu d in g “la ck of in for m a t ion on r esid en t ia ls”, “lit t le ev id en ce of p r ev iou s su ccess” a n d “w id e va r ia t ion in Table II

Ranking o f influe nc e s o n c o urs e c ho ic e

Rank order

High value Low value

Features 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Course content 3 2 1 4 6 5 1 0 0 0 0

Attendance requirement 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 0 4 4 1 0 0

Course cost 1 0 8 1 0 7 4 6 4 3 1

Quality of materials 5 4 7 8 1 8 7 4 3 1

Study programme 2 1 1 1 3 1 0 1 1 5 1 0 1

Course information 1 2 3 8 8 1 7 1 0 5 2

Tutor support 0 2 3 5 5 6 2 3 5 1

Office support 0 2 1 1 1 5 5 1 4 2 1

Student support 0 1 0 2 0 3 5 2 1 1 9

Table III

Numbe r o f ins titutio ns c o ntac te d fo r info rmatio n

Institutions Contacted by

1 1 2

2 1 5

3 1 6

4 1 2

5 2

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st r u ct u r e, d et a il a n d in for m a t ion ”. N ot s u r -p r is in gly, t h e m or e in for m a t ion r es -p on d en t s h a d ob t a in ed , t h e gr ea t er t h e t en d en cy t o s ee a va r ia t ion b et w een m a t er ia l. H ow ever, com -m en t s sh ow t h a t con t en t , r a t h er t h a n t h e im p a ct of t h e m a t er ia l w a s r e ga r d ed a s t h e m os t im p or t a n t fa ct or.

Good m a t er ia l w a s com m en d ed for it s cla r -it y, u s er -fr ien d lin es s a n d con s ist en cy b et w een s ect ion s of t h e in for m a t ion . Wh ile p ot en t ia l s t u d en t s seek clea r p r es en t a t ion , t h ey a r e a ls o a n xiou s t o h ave com p r eh en sive d et a ils exp r es s ed in a n u n d er st a n d a ble w ay w it h ou t t oo m u ch con cen t r a t ion on a s sess -m en t p a t t er n s. T h ey wou ld lik e t o k n ow w h a t ot h er s t u d en t s follow in g t h e cou r s e h ave a ch ieved a n d w h a t t h e s t u dy p r ogr a m m e m ea n s in t er m s of t im e d em a n d s.

Provider reputation and institutional image Cou r s e r e gist r a t ion d ecis ion s a p p ea r t o h ave b een m a d e n ot s im p ly on t h e b a s is of p u b -lis h ed in for m a t ion , bu t a lso on ot h er k n ow l-ed ge a b ou t a p r ov id in g in st it u t ion . Ap p r oxi-m a t ely h a lf of r es p on d en t s r efer r ed t o t h e im p or t a n ce of t h e p r ov id er ’s r e p u t a t ion a s a n in fl u en ce on cou r s e com m it m en t d ecis ion s, a lt h ou gh m or e t h a n t h r ee-q u a r t er s offer ed a t lea s t a n im p licit r efer en ce t o elem en t s of r e p u t a t ion , in d ica t in g a s u b con s ciou s a s sess-m en t of q u a lit y. Ta ble IV s u sess-m sess-m a r izes t h ese elem en t s of r e p u t a t ion .

Com m en t s on p r ov id er r e p u t a t ion in clu d ed r efer en ces t o t h e “lea d er s h ip a n d st a n d in g of u n iver s it y s t a ff ”, a n d it s “good p a st lin k s w it h t h e loca l ed u ca t ion a u t h or it y ”, w h ile a fu r t h er t wo n ot ed t h e im p or t a n ce of “t h e r esea r ch r ecor d ”.

Res p on s es in d ica t ed over a ll t h a t loca l a n d n a t ion a l “p eop le n et wor k s ” a r e s ign ifi ca n t , p a r t icu la r ly w h er e r e p u t a t ion is b a sed on p r ev iou s st u d en t exp er ien ce: 20 r es p on d en t s h a d lea r n ed a b ou t cou r se r e p u t a t ion by wor d of m ou t h – t h r ou gh collea gu e n et wor k s, fr om p r ev iou s cou r s e m em b er s a n d t h ou gh wor k in g w it h t h e in s t it u t ion in ot h er w ay s. Fou r t een h a d ga in ed t h eir in for m a t ion fr om jou r -n a ls a -n d t h e p r es s – w it h t h e T im es E d u ca tio-n

S u p p lem en t (T E S ) em er gin g a s a k ey in for m a -t ion sou r ce.

P r ev iou s a ssocia t ion w it h a p a r t icu la r p r ov id er is con sid er ed a ver y im p or t a n t fa ct or. For exa m p le, on e r es p on d en t com -m en t s t h a t w er e “b ot h -m y ch ild r en t h er e”, w h ile a n ot h er p oin t s t o “m y p r ev iou s exp er i-en ce of t h e u n iver sit y ” a s a m a jor r ea son t o r et u r n . Yet a n ot h er r efer s t o “k n ow led ge of t h e fi r st d e gr ee r eq u ir em en t s w h ich su ggest ed st a n d a r d s w er e h igh ”. T h r ee r esp on d en t s h a d a ct u a lly v isit ed ea ch of t h e t h r ee in st it u t ion s t h a t t h ey h a d con t a ct ed for in for m a t ion – d esp it e t h e fa ct t h a t t h ey w er e in t en d in g t o wor k a t a d ist a n ce; t h e m ot ive m ay b e seen in t h e com m en t “so t h a t I cou ld get t o k n ow s om et h in g of t h e p eop le”. In op en com m en t s, on e p ot en t ia l s t u d en t s u ggest ed t h a t sa m p le m a t er ia ls wou ld b e a h elp in d ecid in g on a cou r se, w h ile ot h er s com m en d t h e w a r m t h of r esp on se t o t h eir en q u ir ies even a t t h e in it ia l en q u ir y st a ge.

Res p on d en t s w er e a lso a sk ed t o r a n k p er -ceived n e ga t ive a sp ect s of cou r se p r ov ision in a n a t t em p t t o a b st r a ct t h e r ea son s for ch oice w h ile avoid in g lea d in g q u es t ion s. F r om t h is in for m a t ion it is p ossible t o a ssess m a in m ot i-va t in g fa ct or s in even t u a l cou r s e ch oice. Ta ble V su m m a r izes eva lu a t ion s of t h e n e ga -t ive a s p ec-t s of cou r se offer s : -t h ese r esp on ses a r e m u ch m or e sp r ea d t h a n in p r ev iou s q u es-t ion s. Ales-t h ou gh , a s es-t wo r esp on d en es-t s su ggeses-t , t h e q u es t ion m ay h ave a p p ea r ed a m b igu ou s, it is a lso lik ely t h a t in d iv id u a l r ea s on s for r eject in g a p a r t icu la r cou r se a r e m u ch m or e com p lex a n d r esp on d en t s’ a n sw er s r evea l t h e in t er a ct ion of a n u m b er of ch oice fa ct or s.

T h ese fi gu r es sh ow t h a t r esp on d en t s h ave con sid er ed cou r se cost s (in clu d in g t h e a d d i-t ion a l cosi-t s of b ook s a n d cou r se a i-t i-t en d a n ce) a s t h e m ost sign ifi ca n t fi n a l ch oice fa ct or. T h is is follow ed by a d is lik e of t h e r esid en t ia l elem en t , w it h seven fem a les giv in g t h is a s t h eir m ost n e ga t ive elem en t a n d a fu r t h er t h r ee a s t h e secon d m ost n e ga t ive fa ct or. Con cer n over t im e d em a n d s a n d t h e p ossib il-it y t h a t a cou r se m ay b e in a p p r op r ia t e is sp r ea d t h r ou gh ou t t h e r a n k in gs, a n d com -m en t s su ggest t h a t t h er e is a n xiet y a b ou t w h a t t h e h id d en cou r se cost s m igh t b e a s w ell a s t h e n eed for a n a ca d em ic a n d a d m in ist r a -t ive s-t a ff “h o-t lin e” -t o r ea ssu r e d ou b -t er s d u r in g a r ecr u it m en t p er iod .

T h e la ck of h elp fr om cou r se in for m a t ion a n d cou r se p er son n el is n ot seen a s a n e ga t -in g fa ct or, a lt h ou gh sp ecifi c cou r se r eject ion m ay h ave d e p en d ed on st u d en t exp er ien ce of a n in d iv id u a l in st it u t ion . T h e la ck of fi n a n cia l h elp a n d ot h er s u p p or t fr om t h e r esp on -d en t ’s ow n in st it u t ion is clea r ly a fa ct or in r ea ch in g fi n a l d ecision s bu t , in m a k in g a ch oice b et w een cou r ses, it is les s sign ifi ca n t Table IV

Ele me nts o f re putatio n lis te d by re s po nde nts

Times

Element mentioned

Status, tradition, “established” 1 2

Academic credibility 9

Quality of staff 7

Quality of course, materials, support 6

Distance-learning experience 3

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a s a fa ct or – op en com m en t s in d ica t e t h a t r esp on d en t s oft en b e gin t h e p r ocess of s elec-t ion on elec-t h e a ss u m p elec-t ion elec-t h a elec-t elec-t h er e w ill n oelec-t b e in st it u t ion a l fi n a n cia l su p p or t .

Ot h er r ea son s for r eject in g p a r t icu la r cou r s es in clu d e p er son a l wor r ies t h a t it wou ld b e d ifficu lt t o cop e w it h s t u dy d em a n d s. Alt h ou gh r es ea r ch in d ica t es t h a t d is t a n ce s t u d en t s a r e gen er a lly “m or e com -p et it ive, a ch ievem en t or ien t ed a n d a s ser t ive” t h a n t h e gen er a l p op u la t ion (Got t er t , 1983) a n d “con s id er t h em s elves in d e p en d en t a n d ca p a ble… q u it e a few d ist a n ce s t u d en t s w h o seem t o d ou b t t h eir a b ilit y t o cop e” (H olm -b er g, 1995, p p. 13-14). Sever a l st u d en t s s ay t h ey r eject cou r s es b eca u s e t h ey offer in s u ffi-cien t s t u d en t con t r ol over wor k loa d .

Cou r s e r eject ion is a ls o oft en r ela t ed t o t h e p er ceived r e p u t a t ion of t h e p r ov id er a s exp r es s ed t h r ou gh n et wor k s w it h collea gu es a n d t h e ed u ca t ion a l p r es s. In a d d it ion , cou r s es a r e a lso r eject ed b eca u s e lit t le in for -m a t ion is p r ov id ed a b ou t t u t or s a n d t h eir p r ofes s ion a l r e p u t a t ion , a n d it m ay b e t h a t t h e m a t er ia ls p r ov id ed s h ou ld r efl ect t h e st a t u s a n d va lid a t ion p r oced u r es, p a s t s u c-ces s es a n d a ca d em ic cr ed ib ilit y of cou r s es. Con cer n s a b ou t t h e t u t or s t u d en t r ela t ion -sh ip d o, h ow ever, r efl ect a n a p p a r en t p a r a d ox in s t u d en t a t t it u d es. Wh ile in for m a t ion a b ou t t u t or exp er t is e a n d exp er ien ce is seen a s a n im p or t a n t iss u e for m a n y p ot en t ia l s t u d en t s, on ce on -cou r s e t h er e a p p ea r s t o b e a r et icen ce in a p p r oa ch in g t u t or s t o u t ilize t h a t exp er -t is e:

Ma n y lea r n er s h ave a t t it u d es t ow a r d s k n ow led ge a n d t ow a r d s “ed u ca t ed ” in d iv id -u a ls w h ich m in im ise t h e p ot en t ia lit y of d ia logu e. On e of t h e m ost com m on s t a t e-m en t s fr oe-m lea r n er s a b ou t t h eir h es it a n cy in t a lk in g t o t u t or s w a s t h a t t h eir p r oblem w a s n ot wor t h y of t h eir t u t or ’s a t t en t ion , a n d t h ey w er e u n w illin g t o t a k e u p t h eir t u t or ’s t im e (H a u gh ey, 1991, p. 20)

Higher education: learning

lessons?

J u d gin g by t h os e r e p ly in g t o t h e q u est ion -n a ir e, op p or t u -n it ies p r ov id ed by d ist a -n celea r n in g p r ogr a m m es a r e in cr ea sin gly t em p t -in g t o p ot en t ia l st u d en t s, su p p or t -in g b ot h n a t ion a l a n d in t er n a t ion a l t r en d s. Da n iel (1993) com m en t s on it s p a r t icu la r s u it a b ilit y a s a su p p or t for t h e lea r n in g n eed s of t ea ch -er s:

Dist a n ce ed u ca t ion h a s p r oved t o b e t h e b es t m et h od for eq u ip p in g t ea ch er s n ot s im p ly t o cop e w it h ch a n ges, bu t t o em b r a ce t h em w it h en t h u s ia sm … in t h e Un it ed Kin gd om it is n ow h elp in g t ea ch er s t o m a k e t h e t r a n s i-t ion i-t o i-t h e n ew n a i-t ion a l cu r r icu lu m .

Of t h e 60 r esp on d en t st o t h e Keele su r vey, 25 h a d op t ed for d ist a n ce ed u ca t ion cou r ses a t va r iou s in st it u t ion s, w it h a fu r t h er n in e in d ica t in g t h a t t h ey wou ld h ave b e gu n a cou r se if fi n a n cia l su p p or t h a d b een ava il-a ble. Cou r se r eject ion by p ot en t iil-a l st u d en t s a p p ea r s t o b e r ela t ed m ost closely t o cost a n d , of t h e 60, on ly 11 h a d ga in ed t h e p r om ise of a n y for m of fi n a n cia l su p p or t fr om t h eir in st i-t u i-t ion or LE A. In a d d ii-t ion , i-t wo p oi-t en i-t ia l st u d en t s p oin t ed t o t h e im p or t a n ce of lin k ed fl exible lea r n in g issu es – fi r st , t h e n ot ion of “p r ior a ccr ed it a t ion ” of lea r n in g a n d exp er i-en ce con t r ibu t in g t o a n aw a r d a n d , secon d , t h e n eed for on goin g cou r se r esp on siven ess a n d fl exib ilit y t o a llow s t u d en t s t o com p let e t h eir cou r se.

As t h e va n gu a r d d ist a n celea r n in g in st it u t ion in t h e UK, t h e Op en Un iver sit y ’s r e p u t a -t ion for excellen ce r es-t s on a n a p p r oa ch w h ich “cr ea t es h igh -q u a lit y lea r n in g by bu ild in g on st u d en t com m it m en t , h igh q u a l-it y t u t or in g, a n d su m m er sch ools t o b r in g st u d en t s t oget h er ” (N CE , 1993, p. 94). H ow ever, t h is a p p r oa ch m ay, in fu t u r e, b e su p er -sed ed (s om e m igh t s ay t h r ea t en ed ) by r ecen t d evelop m en t s in som e p a r t s of h igh er ed u ca -t ion – in b o-t h old a n d n ew u n iver si-t ies – w h ich em p h a size low -cos t p r ov is ion , lit t le or n o fa ce-t o-fa ce t u t or in g a n d lit t le or n o r esi-d en t ia l exp er ien ce.

T h is n ew m od u s v iv en d i a p p ea r s t o b e a t lea st in it ia lly s u ccess fu l w it h h a r d -p r essed t ea ch er s a n d ed u ca t ion m a n a ger s con fr on t ed w it h t h e n eed for gr ea t er p r a gm a t ism w it h r e ga r d t o t h eir ow n p r ofession a l d evelop -m en t . H igh ly p r ess u r ized p r ofess ion a l lives, w h en com b in ed w it h low -p ay r ela t iv it ies (N UT, 1993) a n d v ir t u a lly n o p ossib ilit y of ext er n a l fu n d in g su p p or t , p u sh es p ot en t ia l st u d en t s t ow a r d s aw a r d -b ea r in g

op p or t u n it ies w h ich offer low t u it ion cost s a n d lim it ed t im e/ st u dy d em a n d s.

Table V

Ranking o f re as o ns fo r re je c ting dis tanc e -le arning c o urs e s

Rank ordera

Features 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Cost too high 2 7 8 4 5 1 1 1 1

Residential requirement 9 8 9 3 1 0 4 4 4

Inappropriate 9 6 8 6 7 0 1 2

Too much work 8 5 8 2 9 2 3 3

Lack of support from own

institution 3 7 3 3 2 5 3 1 1

Additional costs 2 1 0 1 2 3 6 7 1 2

Poor course information 1 4 2 6 5 8 6 3

Lack of help from course

personnel 1 0 2 2 3 5 1 5 4

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Over a ll, t h e Keele s u r vey d a t a in d ica t e t h a t , of t h e r a n ge of k ey iss u es, cos t s a n d con t a ct s a r e s ign ifi ca n t con cer n s lea d in g t ea ch er s a n d ot h er ed u ca t ion ist s con s id er in g d is t a n ce ed u ca t ion p r ov ision t o focu s on op p or t u n it ies w h ich a llow t h em t o m in im ize cos t s w h ile m a xim izin g “va lu e for m on ey ”; m in im ize a t t en d a n ce a n d “con t a ct ” w h ile m a xim izin g q u a lit y m a t er ia ls a n d in d e p en d en t lea r n in g. T h e in cr ea s in g m a r k et or ien t a t ion of ed u ca -t ion a n d -t h e gr ow in g em p h a s is on d is -t a n ce ed u ca t ion su p p or t ed by a r a p id ly exp a n d in g r a n ge of m ed ia t ech n ologies offer t h e p r os p ect of in cr ea sed aw a r d b ea r in g p r ofes s ion a l d evelop m en t op p or t u n it ies for t ea ch -er s a n d ot h -er ed u ca t ion ist s, bu t in d oin g s o a ls o h old t h e p r os p ect of lim it ed fa ce-t o-fa ce in t er a ct ion s.

T h e r es u lt s of t h e s u r vey in d ica t e t h a t , for h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s, t h e w ay t o in cr ea s ed cou r se r ecr u it m en t s eem s t o b e v ia m in im u m cos t p r ov ision a n d t h e d evelop -m en t of n ew in t er a ct ive t ech n ologies a s a cos t -effect ive a lt er n a t ive t o for m a l t ea ch in g (Tu ck er, 1989). T h is, in t u r n , m ay m ea n t h a t cou r s e p r ov id er s n eed t o t em p t p ot en t ia l s t u d en t s w it h ea sy -in st a lm en t p ay m en t s a n d m in im a l “a d d -on ” cou r se-r ela t ed cos t s.

T h e effect of t h e n ew fu n d in g s cen a r io r elia n t on in d iv id u a ls u n d er w r it in g t h eir ow n d evelop m en t a s t h e m ost im p or t a n t ch oice fa ct or is n ow b ein g s een a cr os s t h e H E s ect or, w it h som e in st it u t ion s m ov in g t ow a r d s “t ot a l” d ist a n ce-lea r n in g p a ck a ges, offer in g fl exible com p let ion d a t es w it h in a set p er iod , n o r eq u ir em en t for r es id en t ia l exp er i-en ce, a n d eit h er n o for m a l t u t or con t a ct or t u t or ia l s u p p or t on ly by t ele p h on e/ fa x. Wh ile it m ay m eet p ot en t ia l s t u d en t d em a n d , t h is d evelop m en t d oes n ot , h ow ever, a lt oget h er ea s ily r econ cile t h e t h or n y iss u es of “a ca d e-m ic excellen ce”, “q u a lit y a s su r a n ce” a n d t h e r ea l “st u d en t exp er ien ce”.

As m a n y in st it u t ion s a r e t em p t ed t o “go t o m a r k et ”, m a xim izin g t h eir clien t b a se by p r od u cin g m a t er ia lsb a sed , d is t a n ceed u ca -t ion cou r ses a n d a llow in g -t u -t or su p p or -t -t o b ecom e gen u in ely d is t a n ced (or even in v isi-ble!), follow -on a s sessm en t is a lso lik ely t o b ecom e a n “a r m ’s len gt h ” a ct iv it y – wor k -b a sed , r e p or t -focu sed , w it h a st r on g em p h a s is on “com p et en ce”. Ir on ica lly, h ow ever, w it h lim it ed s t u d en t -t u t or in t er a ct ion , t h e a ca d em ic eva lu a t ion of st u d en t p r ogr es s is p ot en -t ia lly en d a n ger ed a n d m ay b e gin -t o b e a p a p er exer cis e – a t it s wor s t va lid a t in g w h a t t h e st u d en t (or h is / h er ow n m a n a ger, m en t or or su p er v is or ) t ells you is h a p p en in g or h a s h a p p en ed .

As in cr ea sin g n u m b er s of u n iver s it ies b e gin t o a d op t d is t a n ce lea r n in g a s a

d elib er a t e cou r se d eliver y st r a t e gy in a n en d eavou r t o m a k e p r ogr a m m es m or e wor k -r ela t ed , com p et en ce-b a s ed a n d lin k ed t o p -r ofession a l p r a ct ice t h r ou gh t h e N a t ion a l Voca t ion a l Qu a lifi ca t ion fr a m ewor k , st u d en t con -cer n s over t h e q u a lit y a n d va lu e for m on ey issu es, a s w ell a s t h e n a t u r e of t h e st u d en t exp er ien ce, a p p ea r t o b e b ecom in g in cr ea s-in gly im p or t a n t . At t h e s-in st it u t ion a l level, t ea ch in g a n d r esea r ch q u a lit y, t h e n a t u r e of a ssess m en t p r ocesses a n d t h e over a ll va lu e of t h e a ca d em ic exp er ien ce a r e a ls o in cr ea s-in gly st r essed t h r ou gh t h e a t t en t ion p a id t o t h em by t h e H igh er E d u ca t ion F u n d in g Cou n cil for E n gla n d (H E F CE ) a n d t h e H igh er E d u -ca t ion Qu a lit y Cou n cil (H E QC).

Beyon d t h e im m ed ia t e a n d sh or t -t er m ga in s of p a r t icip a t in g in a n exp a n d in g d is-t a n ce-lea r n in g m a r k eis-t , con is-t in u ed sis-t u d en is-t su ccess a n d cou r se or in st it u t ion a l cr ed ib il-it y r es t s on t h e r esolu t ion of fu n d a m en t a l a n d lon ger -t er m q u a lit y iss u es. H ow ever, a t r a n s-p a r en t fr a m ewor k w it h a gr eed s-p a r a m et er s for “n on -t r a d it ion a l” for m s of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g ca n on ly a id t h e d evelop m en t of q u a lit y -d r iven , yet d iver se p r ov ision . P er h a p s a s a fi r s t s t e p, a com p r eh en sive n a t ion a l d a t a -b a se, w it h s p ecifi c ca t e gor ies of in for m a t ion , w h ich a llow s p ot en t ia l st u d en t s t o com p a r e cou r se elem en t s a n d in st it u t ion s a cr oss a r a n ge of m ea su r es m ay even t u a lly lea d t o t h e p ossib ilit y of “k it e-m a r k ed ” p r ov ision w h ich m eet s clea r a n d n a t ion a lly a gr eed “q u a lit y ” cr it er ia .

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