ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
S T E P H E N P. R O B B I N SS T E P H E N P. R O B B I N S E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N
E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N
W W W . P R E N H A L L . C O M / R O B B I N S
W W W . P R E N H A L L . C O M / R O B B I N S
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc.
All rights reserved. PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook
PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook
Perception and Individual Decision Making Pertemuan 3
Muhammad Arief
What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?
What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?
•
People’s behavior is
People’s behavior is
based on their
based on their
perception of what
perception of what
reality is, not on
reality is, not on
reality itself.
reality itself.
•
The world as it is
The world as it is
perceived is the world
perceived is the world
that is behaviorally
that is behaviorally
important.
important.
•
People’s behavior is
People’s behavior is
based on their
based on their
perception of what
perception of what
reality is, not on
reality is, not on
reality itself.
reality itself.
•
The world as it is
The world as it is
perceived is the world
perceived is the world
that is behaviorally
that is behaviorally
important.
important.
Perception
A process by which
Factors That
Influence
Perception
Factors That
Influence
Perception
E X H I B I T 5–1
Person Perception: Making Judgments About
Others
Person Perception: Making Judgments About
Others
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations. Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Attribution Theory
Attribution Theory
Attribution Theory
E X H I B I T 5–2
Errors and Biases in Attributions
Errors and Biases in Attributions
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to underestimate
the influence of external factors
and overestimate the influence
of internal factors when making
judgments about the behavior
of others.
In general, we
tend to blame the
Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)
Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency for individuals
to attribute their own
successes to internal factors
while putting the blame for
failures on external factors.
Thought: When student gets an “A” on an exam, they often say they
studied hard. But when they don’t do well, how does the self serving bias come into play?
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Selective Perception
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression
about an individual on the
basis of a single characteristic
Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that
are affected by comparisons with other
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Projection
Attributing one’s own
characteristics to other
people.
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the
basis of one’s perception of
the group to which that
Specific Applications in Organizations
Specific Applications in Organizations
Employment Interview
– Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’ judgments of applicants.
Performance Expectations
– Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.
Ethnic Profiling
Specific Applications in Organizations (cont’d)
Specific Applications in Organizations (cont’d)
Performance Evaluations
– Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental)
The Link Between Perceptions and Individual
Decision Making
The Link Between Perceptions and Individual
Decision Making
Perception
of the
decision
maker
Perception
of the
decision
maker
Outcomes
Problem
A
perceived
discrepancy
between the current state of
affairs and a desired state.
Decisions
Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making
Model
Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making
Model
Model Assumptions
•
Problem clarity
•
Known options
•
Clear preferences
•
Constant
preferences
•
No time or cost
constraints
•
Maximum payoff
Model Assumptions
•
Problem clarity
•
Known options
•
Clear preferences
•
Constant
preferences
•
No time or cost
constraints
•
Maximum payoff
Rational
Decision-Making Model
Describes how
Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model
Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model
1. Define the problem.
2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.
E X H I B I T 5–3
The Three Components of Creativity
The Three Components of Creativity
Creativity
The ability to produce
novel and useful ideas.
Three-Component
Model of Creativity
Proposition that individual
creativity requires expertise,
creative-thinking skills, and
intrinsic task motivation.
E X H I B I T 5–4
E X H I B I T 5–4
How Are Decisions Actually Made in
Organizations?
How Are Decisions Actually Made in
Organizations?
Bounded Rationality
How Are Decisions Actually Made in
Organizations? (cont’d)
How Are Decisions Actually Made in
Organizations? (cont’d)
How/Why problems are Identified
– Visibility over importance of problem• Attention-catching, high profile problems
• Desire to “solve problems”
– Self-interest (if problem concerns decision maker)
Alternative Development
– Satisficing: seeking the first alternative that solves problem.
– Engaging in incremental rather than unique problem solving through successive limited comparison of
Common Biases and Errors
Common Biases and Errors
Overconfidence Bias
– Believing too much in our own ability to make good decisions.
Anchoring Bias
– Using early, first received information as the basis for making subsequent judgments.
Confirmation Bias
Common Biases and Errors
Common Biases and Errors
Availability Bias
– Using information that is most readily at hand. • Recent
• Vivid
Representative Bias
– “Mixing apples with oranges”
– Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match it with a preexisting category using only the facts that
support our decision.
Winner’s Curse
– Highest bidder pays too much
Common Biases and Errors
Common Biases and Errors
Escalation of Commitment
– In spite of new negative information, commitment actually increases!
Randomness Error
– Creating meaning out of random events
Hindsight Bias
– Looking back, once the outcome has occurred, and
Intuition
Intuition
Intuitive Decision Making
– An unconscious process created out of distilled experience.
Conditions Favoring Intuitive Decision Making
– A high level of uncertainty exists– There is little precedent to draw on
– Variables are less scientifically predictable
– “Facts” are limited
– Facts don’t clearly point the way
– Analytical data are of little use
– Several plausible alternative solutions exist
Individual Differences in Decision Making
Individual Differences in Decision Making
Source: A.J. Rowe and J.D. Boulgarides, Managerial Decision Making, (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992), p. 29.
Personality
Aspects of conscientiousness and escalation of commitment.
Self Esteem High self serving bias
Gender
Organizational Constraints on Decision Makers
Organizational Constraints on Decision Makers
Performance Evaluation
– Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions.
Reward Systems
– Decision makers make action choices that are favored by the organization.
Formal Regulations
– Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative choices of decision makers.
System-imposed Time Constraints
– Organizations require decisions by specific deadlines.
Historical Precedents
Cultural Differences in Decision Making
Cultural Differences in Decision Making
Problems selected
Time orientation
Importance of logic and rationality
Ethics in Decision Making
Ethics in Decision Making
Ethical Decision Criteria
– Utilitarianism• Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number. – Rights
• Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals such as whistleblowers.
– Justice
Ethics in Decision Making
Ethics in Decision Making
Ethics and National Culture
– There are no global ethical standards.
– The ethical principles of global organizations that
Ways to Improve Decision Making
Ways to Improve Decision Making
1. Analyze the situation and adjust your decision
making style to fit the situation.
2. Be aware of biases and try to limit their impact.
3. Combine rational analysis with intuition to
increase decision-making effectiveness.
4. Don’t assume that your specific decision style is
appropriate to every situation.
Toward Reducing Bias and Errors
Toward Reducing Bias and Errors
Focus on goals.
– Clear goals make decision making easier and help to eliminate options inconsistent with your interests.
Look for information that disconfirms beliefs.
– Overtly considering ways we could be wrongchallenges our tendencies to think we’re smarter than we actually are.
Don’t try to create meaning out of random events.
– Don’t attempt to create meaning out of coincidence.
Increase your options.
– The number and diversity of alternatives generated increases the chance of finding an outstanding one.
E X H I B I T 5–5
E X H I B I T 5–5
It’s your little sister’s senior Prom night, and she notices
that everyone is wearing the same dress she has on!
Which perceptual shortcut may be occurring?
•
Escalation of commitment
Escalation of commitment
•
Representative bias
Representative bias
•
Availability Bias
Availability Bias
•
Hindsight Bias
Hindsight Bias
It’s your little sister’s senior Prom night, and she notices that
everyone is wearing the same dress she has on! Which
perceptual shortcut may be occurring?
Chapter Check-Up: Perception
• Escalation of commitment Escalation of commitment • Representative biasRepresentative bias
• Availability Bias Availability Bias
• Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias
Discuss with your neighbor what the answer would be if your sister came home and said “I just knew that everyone would buy
If all of these perceptual shortcuts happen unconsciously, how can we keep the stereotypes we have from interfering with the way we work in group projects? Identify two specific things you could do to help prevent stereotypes from inhibiting effective group relationships. Discuss with a neighbor.
Michael has just discovered he is double registered for two classes
at the same time and must make a decision about which one to
take this semester. He considers the professor teaching this
semester, the time of the class, and the classes his friends are
taking. He then considers his options for when he can take each
class again, as well as the costs and benefits for taking each this
semester versus later next year. He then makes his decision.
Michael has just engaged in what?
In making his decision, Michael forgot
to consider the implications of the
color of paint in the room where each
class was being offered. Given that
room color can influence mood, which
can influence performance, why didn’t
Michael consider it?
Michael engaged in the
rational decision making model,
and didn’t consider the paint color
of the rooms because he operates
under the confines of
bounded rationality.
Chapter Checkup: What biases
might have affected Martha
