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Indonesian and Translation: National Identity in the Global Border Contests
Elisabet Titik Murtisari
Satya Wacana Christian University, Indonesia
Biodata: Elisabet Titik Murtisari is a lecturer at the English Language Education Department of the Faculty of Language and Literature, Satya Wacana Christian University (UKSW), Salatiga. Her research interests are pragmatics, translation, language policy and identity and language teaching. Her contact email is etmurtisari@gmail.com.
Abstract
As a national symbol, the Indonesian language has played a crucial role in unifying I do esia s highl di e se o u ities, which consist of over a thousand tribes with over six hundred vernaculars. Recognising the value of Indonesian, the government has endeavoured to maintain it, especially through the standardisation of grammar and vocabulary and the development of language teaching. However, translation, which should be able to enhance the functions of Indonesian, is one area that seems to have been egle ted. Despite the ou t s stagge i g elia e o t a slated lite atu e, the ualit of the translations (especially from English) is generally very low. In translated texts Indonesian is becoming more Anglicized instead of being enriched by the creative incorporation of foreign elements. This corrosion of Indonesian may pose a serious threat to the language as a national symbol that sets the nation apart from others. With globalisation contesting national borders at an unparalleled rate, it is imperative that translation be seriously o side ed i the ou t s la guage poli to e su e the atio al s ol s italit a d protect its linguistic and cultural wealth.
Key words: National Identity, Translation, Language Policy, Globalisation.
Introduction
2 national borders at an unparalleled rate, it is imperative that translation be seriously o side ed i the ou t s la guage poli to e su e its italit a d p ote t its li guisti a d cultural wealth as it plays a role in representing the nation. I will address this issue by first looking at the significance of national identity and Indonesian as a symbol of national ide tit . Late , I ill o e o to add ess t a slatio i I do esia s la guage pla i g a d the pandemy of translationese in the country. I will conclude the discussion by emphasising the eed fo a spe ifi la guage poli o t a slatio to ai tai I do esia s atio al language and recommend programs for improving the situation.
National identity: why it matters
The Indonesian term of national identity (identitas nasional) is normally understood as the a ifestatio of a atio s ultu al alues a d ha a te isti s hi h akes it diffe e t f o other nations (Siswomihardjo 2005). Such a definition reflects the two faces of identity. On the one hand, it is concerned with a shared association to common beliefs and attributes, a d, he e, as Ku a a adi elu : puts it, sa e ess . O the othe ha d, it efe s to a a a e ess of diffe e e – a feeli g a d e og itio of e a d the ' Lee : 29). National identity seen in this way is fluid as the nature and relationship of Self and
Other, also constantly change.
In a developing country with a highly pluralist society such as Indonesia, national identity is crucial in order to build unity and stability to accelerate development (Budhisantoso 1996). Endeavours are therefore made in politics to continuosly revitalise and st e gthe s ols of atio al ide tit to ake the atio diffe f o othe s (Budhisantosa 1998: n.p). Indeed, as Watson points out, [ ]ational identity does not grow atu all i a so iet ; it has to e eated, u tu ed a d a efull p o oted : . Efforts in the construction of national identity is becoming more and more important to hold the citizenry closer to the state as the o ld is i easi gl glo alised Be hoffe & McCrone 2009: 4).
Indonesian: symbol national identity and policy
The sig ifi a e of la guage as the ajo ehi le of a people s ultu e, hi h is a e t al dimension of national identity (Guibernau 2004, Smith 1991), cannot be overemphasised. A o di g to Jia g, la guage is the s oli ep ese tatio of a people e ause it is shaped by its historical and cultural background, including their approach to life and ways of thinking (Jiang 2000: 328). Language is naturally a basic symbol of identity since it determines much of how a person is perceived and perceives. As Joseph (2004: 225) puts it:
3 So close is the link between language and identity that Orman (2008: 46) argues that la guage pla i g a e see as the ost salie t [...] t pe of ide tit pla i g . To this he adds:
If we can talk of language planning as a type of identity planning, it follows that we can view language policies as types of identity policy and when they operate at the level of nations and states we may then talk of language-in-national-identity policies.
(Orman 2008: 47)
As a u if i g s ol of its highl di e se people, I do esia is a ital pa t of I do esia s national identity. Its role was proved indispensable in bringing different ethnic groups togethe du i g the ou t s atio alist o e e t. It as p o lai ed as the atio s language of unity in the Youth Pledge (Sumpah Pemuda) in 1928, which gave impetus for the people s i depe de e o e e t. I this se se, Be edi t A de so is o e t i saying that national language serves as a bedrock for nationalism - which, in my view, is inseparable from its unifying aspect. This integrative function of Indonesian continued to be pivotal after the birth of the country in 1945. Both the national and official language, Indonesian is not only the language of administration, mass media and education, but the language most commonly used by people from over a thousand different ethnic groups speaking more than 600 local languages. While it was a dialect of Malay, it has grown into a major language influenced b I do esia s a ious egio al e a ula s a d disti tl
ep ese ts the ou t s atio al ultu e.
Recognising the crucial role of Indonesian, a great deal of efforts have been made to maintain and develop the language, e.g. vocabulary and grammatical development, promotion through education (especially language teaching) and mass media. The efforts in language policy have been generally very fruitful.1 E i gto : sa s that No Indonesian is a fully viable, universally acknowledged national language. I do esia s national language policy has also often been deemed a great success (Pauuw 2009). However, translation, which should be able to enhance the functions of Indonesian, is one area that seems to have been neglected. There is no particular language policy and planning in the field by the Indonesian government. Consequently, starting from 1998, when the eed fo t a slatio ega su gi g ith the ou t s adoptio of o e li e al de o a and increasing globalisation, the quality of Indonesian in translations started to drop (see also Agustinus, n.d. in Thipani 2014). As we shall see in the next section, while there has always been recognition over the importance of translation in language development, there has not been serious effort on the part of the government to develop the area since early in the ou t s histo of la guage pla i g.
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4 Translation in Indonesia’s language planning
In addition to its vital role in transfer of knowledge and information for nation building, translation is paramount in the development of national languages by enlarging their capacities as a medium of communication, be it in vocabulary and organisation of ideas. As an act of mediated interlingual communication, however, translation is far beyond, borrowing “hi g s : o ds, a pu e li guisti t a sfe . With la guage a ifested itself with social, political and cultural values, translation is often positioned at the very frontier in constant negotiation with the Other. In this way, according Paul St-Pierre, translation is central in shaping national identity:
Translation [...] plays an essential role in determining how a nation establishes its identity in terms of others, be this through opposition through foreign influences, through assimilation or atu alizatio of the fo eig he e diffe e es a e erased to as great a degree as possible, or through imitation of another, usually dominant culture. These are all different strategies of translation, becoming possibilities at different moments in history and underlining the various types of relations between nations which can exist. (In St-Pierre, n.d, as cited in Das 2005: 79-80, cf. St-Pierre n.d: 2)
The significance of translation for the development of Indonesian was recognised and encouraged by the government, especially in the ea l de ades afte I do esia s
independence. At least eight of ten National Congresses on the Indonesian Language, which give input to the National Institute for Language Cultivation and Development (Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa - BPPB), mentioned the need for translation in their e o e datio s, espe iall i ega d to de elopi g the ou t s lite atu e, e ha i g lite atu e s fu tio as a ediu of edu atio , a d disse i ati g s ie e a d te h olog . The government was also advised to establish a national body for translation (KBI III, 1978) and introduce Indonesian literature to the world through translation (KBI VII, 1998). The eed fo t a slatio as e tio ed agai i the last KBI i , to e ha e the status and fu tio s of the atio al la guage. O e e o e datio o e ed the p ope use of Indonesian in translation (KB III, 1983), although the recommendation was not meant for translation per se but for publications in general.
5 Translation is not specifically mentioned in the current strategic programs of the National Institute for Language Cultivation and Development (Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, BPPB), Ministry of Education and Culture (n.d.):
Strengthening of the Indonesian Language as a medium of education
Certification of language use in public spaces, especially at territorial borders
Improvement of the quality and number of literary works and criticism
Improvement of the function of Indonesian as an international language
Development of instructional materials for language and literature
Standardisation of proficiency in Indonesian
Improvement of reading, writing and communication competencies in Indonesian in literacy education
Preservation of language and literature
Facilitation of Indonesian language and literature study programs in senior high schools and universities.
Unlike language teaching, literature and language standardisation, translation is not explicitly specified in the above-mentioned programs. Although, of course, translation might be considered a part of the strengthening of Indonesian as a medium of education and the improvement of the quality and number of literary works and criticisms, it should be dealt with specifically since the country relies on translation so heavily. As Grin (n.d.: 1) observes, t a slatio see s to e affe ted a st a ge fate ith its underepresentation. Grin (n.d.: 1) states:
[I]n a multilingual world, [translation] is, arguably, indispensable; yet in discourses about multilingualism, its role is frequently overlooked: issues such as to foreign language learning, language rights, multilingualism in the classroom, the use of a
lingua franca, etc., usually take centre stage, and translation is often treated as merely residual.
Grin (n.d.) suggests several reasons for the position of translation in Europe, such as the fact that people can learn foreign languages rather than using translation and the preference for using a lingua franca. In the context of translation into Indonesian, the first factor seems to be more relevant since the government has paid more attention to foreign language teaching, especially English. Another important factor seems to be the misconception of the nature of translation. People often mistakenly believe that once one learns a foreign language, he/she should be able to translate, which may be one reason why translation is often seen as subsidiary to foreign language learning. While it is true that one cannot translate without knowing another language, translation requires a completely different set of skills than those for monolingual communication. This misconception contributes to the low appreciation of Indonesian translators and leads to poor decisions in its production, especially the impossible time limits set for translators.
6 whatever is available in the market because they lack competence in the source language (normally English). In 2014 a national book publisher, for instance, pays a translator around US$1.40 per page for translating into Indonesian. If a translator could finish, say five to six pages of translation per day, then, he/she would only get US$154 to US$184.80 a month e ludi g eeke ds , hi h is u h lo e tha Jaka ta s egional minimum wage set by the government. The government clearly needs to support Indonesian translators if the quality of translation in the country is to be improved.
Lost in translation: Translationese in Indonesia
The qualities of translations in Indonesian are notoriously low (Taryadi, 2003, Sinaga, 2003, Kurnia, 2009, Nababan, et.al., 2012, Wijava 2013, Wijaya 2014). Many, if not most, translations have problems with mistranslations and unnatural expressions. The renderings are even often so literal that the language is difficult to understand. A quick search on the Internet will reveal numerous complaints on the poor quality of translations into Indonesian. Prasetyo (2013), an Indonesian reader, for instance, laments:
Ma o plai ts a e aised on the poor quality of the translation of books [...] circulating in the market. The translators seem to have worked carelessly and as a result the rendering is confusing and makes you dizzy. You may even find some
u i telligi le . The t a slato s see to hatte i haoti la guage g a a [...]. 2
Another reader, Wiguna (2009) writes in his blog:
Whe the t a slatio is diffi ult to u de sta d, I ould o all t to guess the English form of the rendering. But then I could not imagine how the text might have been written in the English version of the novel. There were paragraphs I had to skip
e ause I ould t u de sta d the se te es. 3
The more acceptable translations from English, on the other hand, are still normally characterised by relatively strong interference of the source language, not only by the tendency to use loan words but also at the level of syntax. The Anglicized influence on grammar is often shown by the use of a standard active construction in the contexts where a passive construction or a topic comment structure would be more natural in Indonesian. The following, for instance, are just two examples of the numerous parts that simply follow the a ti e oi e i the E glish sou e te t i a t a slatio of “tei e k s Of Mi e a d Me :
2
Indonesian: [B]anyak muncul keluhan tentang rendahnya mutu penerjemahan buku [...] yang beredar di pasar. Penerjemahnya terkesan bekerja asal-asalan, sehingga hasil terjemahannya membingungkan, bikin pusi g, ahka e apai taraf tak isa di a a . [...]. Mereka seperti er eloteh dala struktur ahasa ya g ka au [...].
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7 Example 1
From his side pocket he brought out two spoons [...]. p.17
a. translation
Dari saku sisinya, ia mengeluarkan dua buah sendok [...] From his side pocket he brought out two spoons Subject v active object
(Steinbeck, 1930/2006, Koesalamwardi, Trans, p.30)
b. more natural translation
Dikeluarkannya dua buah sendok dari saku sisinya
Be brought out two spoons from his side pocket Passive verb object adv. modifier Example 2
I ought to of shot that dog myself, George. P.53
a. translation
“eha us a aku menembak anjing itu sendiri, Geo ge. [...] should I shoot the/that dog mysef
I should have shot the dog myself
(Steinbeck, 1937/2006, Koesalamwardi, Trans., p. 115)
b. more natural version
Seharusnya anjing itu aku tembak sendiri
should the/that dog I shoot myself topic comment
the dog I should have shot myself
This tendency of strong syntactic interference of English also appeared in translations in Japan after WWII until recently. Interestingly, translationese has not been seen as something necessarily negative, especially in non-fiction texts (Furuno, 2015). According Furuno (2015: 147), this is because the contemporary Japanese community, who wanted to i po t i fo atio a d k o ledge f o a oad, had a higher regard for Western culture tha its o at that ti e . The ade ua of the t a slatio , i.e. the o ie tatio to a ds the source norms, therefore, seems to have been more important than the use of natural Japanese language.
8 oppose the use of more obvious unnatural structure and expressions4 but do not mind the use of active rather than passive constructions. The latter is more subtle since Indonesian also has an active voice (but with a different distribution than in English). It would be even more interesting to find out why they approve of such syntactic imports if they do. With translationese so pervasive in Indonesia since the reformation era (from 1998), Indonesian translation readers may have become used to the active voice in translated texts and may see it as natural. Such an attitude would show a more fundamental shift of Indonesian by the adoption of source language (SL) norms (English) compared to a mere tendency to follow the SL norms due to poor workmanship. Such unnecessary adoption of SL norms would be undesirable for the development of Indonesian as a symbol of national identity because it would only make the language more like English rather than improving its function.
Conclusion
As a form of language contact, translation shapes the development of national languages, hence national identities. With escalating globalisation and a continuous or increased need for this secondary communication, there would be a greater chance of language shifts, which will affect the dynamics of national identities. It is therefore hightime for Indonesia, whose language plays a very significant political and cultural role, to set up an adequate policy to deal with translation. Specific planning is necessary in order to enable translations to enhance the functions of Indonesian while keeping the borders that set the nation apart f o othe s safe ai tai i g the la guage s li guisti a d ultu al ealth. Several programs that may be incorporated into this are translation quality control, the establishment of translation training programs and an accountable national accreditation body for translators, as well as the promotion of the translation profession and welfare of translators. Considerable resources would be required to implement this, but in that Indonesian is vital for the country and good translations would go a long way for its development, it would be well worth the effort.
Acknowledgements:
The writer sincerely thanks Rosella Kameo for her keen editorial eye. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Asiascapes: Contesting Borders Conference that was held in Perth, July 2014.
4
Example of glaring unnaturalness:
Kita hanya harus mendapatkan tanah itu, [...]. We just have to/must get the land
We just gotta get the la d
(Steinbeck, 1937/1970, Koesalamwardi, Trans. p. 114).
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