REFLECTIVE PRACTICE AS A TOOL FOR REFRAMING ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN THE POSTMETHOD ERA
Joko Nurkamto Sebelas Maret University jokonurkamto@gmail.com
Abstract
Postmethod pedagogy makes it possible for teachers to move beyond the comfort zone, and to continuosly ponder how a method-based pedagogy helps learners develop their language. This is because there is no single best method of teaching which is appropriate for any situation (Kumaravadivelu, 2003). In addition, a pedagogical context itself requires language teachers to craft their teaching practice tailored to different groups of learners with diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. With this in mind, language teachers should negotiate what works best for their learners. Consequently, they are challenged to have a solid understanding of different approaches and methods and translate these into practice. For this, Richards and Rodgers (2014) propose the use of personal practical knowledge (PPK), which involves teachers’ own teaching philosophy, teaching styles, and instructional strategies. To generate this personal practical knowledge, teachers can deploy reflective practice, which enables teachers to make sense of their own pedagogical practice in relation to value and impact (Ghaye, 2011). In this paper, I would like to elaborate the use of reflective practice as a tool for reframing ELT. Some important issues, which will be addressed, include (1) the meaning of reflective practice, (2) the importance of reflective practice in teaching, (3) the principles of reflective practice, (4) procedures for reflective practice, and (5) the model of reflective practice. By understanding these issues, language teachers are supposed to see reflective practice a powerful means of making sustained improvement in their pedagogical practice.
Key words: postmethod pedagogy, personal practical knowledge, reflective practice, and pedagogical practice
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English as an International Language: The changing Global Role of English
Joseph Foley Assumption University
Abstract
This paper will trace the re-conceptualization of the teaching of English from what was a dominant psycholinguistic perspective to a more socio-cultural perspective. Research over the past 30 or 40 years into English as an International language has identified a number of linguistic features that differ from British or American English. This is characterized by the element of variability, with speakers accommodating their language in order to make it more appropriate to the diverse interlocutors involved in the o u i atio . This alls i to uestio the p io itizi g of sta da d ati e E glish lexico-g a ati al a d p ag ati o s i e aluati g the o pete e of o - ati e lea e s. Communication using English in a global context is inherently more fluid, flexible, and dynamic, this implies not only that the language yardsticks need to be updated, but also that new approaches to language modeling are needed.
One consequence of these changes will involve current tests of English as they continue to focus na o l o ati e speake o s. De isio s of o side a le i po ta e i people s li es a e thus take on the basis of their ability to past tests such as TOEFL, TOIEC, IELTS or even the newest of these tests Pearson Test of English (Academic) based on the kinds of English that do not reflect the reality of
non-ati e use s la guage p a ti es.
At a very broad theoretical level, language teaching and assessment tend to regard the notion of communicative competence as the paradigm to follow. However, communicative competence should be empirically derived, that is to say what counts as effective communication should be based on observation of what people actually say and do. Language and communication are part of a wider mobilization of semiotic resources. Language starts to be seen not so much in terms of systems as in terms of practices, as something we do, not as an object in the curriculum but as an activity.
Skills for 21st Century : Teaching Critical Thinking Skills in The Malaysian Primary English Classroom
Juliana Othman
Faculty of Education, University Malaya
Abstract
Realizing the importance of meaningful learning and the pressing need to produce
excellent human capitals who are good language users equipped with problem solving and
thinking skills, the Malaysian Ministry of Education has introduced Primary School
Standards-Based English Language Curriculum (SBELC) in 2011. Part of this curriculum reform involved the
emphasis on critical and creative thinking skills as well as reasoning skills that are incorporated
in the learning standards to enable pupils to solve simple problems, make decisions and express
themselves creatively in simple language (Curriculum Development Division, 2011). This paper
ill dis uss the pedagogi al i pli atio s of this e u i ulu o the tea he s ole, the
THE REPRESENTATION OF INDONESIAN CHILDREN WORLD IN PICTURE BOOKS FOR CHILDREN
Budi Hermawan, Didi Sukyadi, Ruswan Dallyono, Fuad Abdul Hamied
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia email: dsukyadi@upi.edu
ABSTRACT
In this information age, education settings are always represented multimodally, either using verbal, visual, spatial or aural modes. With this mind, literacy learning cannot rely one verbal mode per se, but all modes should be taken into account in every effort to develop young learners to be part of literate community. When representing meanings, textbook developers should consider how young learner worlds are represented multimodally. This study investigates
how children’s world is represented verbally and visually in picture books for children, what are the semantic form of verbal-visual interface in representing the children’s world, and how visual mode constructs interpersonal meaning. This is a descriptive study which relies on reading images theory as developed by Kress and van Leeuwen (1996;2006), theory of how to read visual narrative in picture book (Painter, Martin and Unsworth, 2013), intersemiosis relation (Royce, 2002) to analyse the visual data. Verbal texts as data are analyzed using transitivity system of SFL as developed by Halliday (1994), Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), and further developed by Martin, Matthiessen and Painter (1997), and Eggins (2004). Verbally the
children’s world is mostly represented through the process of material, relational, mental dan
verbal. Visually the children’s world is represented mostly through the use of warm and cool colours combination; it is borderless with that of the readers’, presented using bleed/unbound
frame, close shot, and oblique perspective. The represented participants are people who may be socially close but not intimate, have equal social status with the readers, readers may bump into real life. Semantically visual projects the verbal and vice versa, visual illustrates the verbal and vice versa, what verbal says is retold by the visual vice versa, and verbal may tell different things but still parallel to the verbal and vice versa.
Birds of a feather : Idioms across languages, and implications for the learning and teaching of idioms and collocations in Southeast Asia
James McLellan Universiti Brunei Darussalam
james.mclellan@ubd.edu.bn
Abstract
Do learners of English across Southeast Asia need exposure to common fixed expressions (including idioms) used by first-la guage E glish speake s, su h as the o e i the fi st pa t of the title Enggang sa a e gga g, pipit sa a pipit)? Is it useful to ask learners to draw on their knowledge of such expressions from the other languages known to them?
To address questions of idiomatic competence, unilateral idiomaticity and creative idiomaticity, this presentation draws on three textual corpora which have variable frequency of idiomatic expressions: Southeast Asians who meet at regional gatherings such as ASEAN or SEAMEO, where English is the language choice for formal speeches, tend to use few idiomatic expressions. But in a corpus of similar size consisting of business speeches made by New Zealanders to other New Zealanders idiom use is more frequent. A third corpus, written rather than spoken, comprising articles published recently in the Journal of Asia TEFL and the EIL Journal, also has a low frequency of idioms. The corpus analysis is complemented by data from a survey of idiom awareness among a cohort of Brunei undergraduate students, and a group of teachers and government officers from across ASEAN.
The discussion and conclusion consider the pedagogical implications of research into idiom use and idiomaticity. In particular the presentation considers the possible benefits of comparing English idiomatic expressions with those of Southeast Asian languages, especially local vernaculars.
Teaching communicative acts in the second language classroom: Insights from
research and pedagogical implications
Dr. Thi Thuy Minh Nguyen National Institute of Education
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Abstract
A communicative act is an utterance, or set of utterances that speakers employ to perform a particular function in communication, for example, making requests, lodging complaints, giving compliments, responding with refusals, or sharing thoughts and opinions. The ability to
SOME FRESHMEN’S DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING LISTENING
(A Cross-Sectional Survey Design Conducted at Freshman Level of English Education Program, a particular private University)
Lovi Dwi Lestari1); Delianti2); Riaswati3)
mawarlestari81@gmail.com1); delianti22@gmail.com2); riaswati2@yahoo.com3) Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the freshmen’s difficulties in learning listening course in a university level. The study was conducted toward EFL freshmen of English Education Program a particular private University who was selected purposively from a particular class which consisted of 10 students. The writers proposed two research questions: (1) Do the freshmen find out the difficulties in learning listening?(2) What are the freshmen’s difficulties in learning listening?To answer the research questions aforementioned, they employed a cross-sectional survey design at which they administered questionnaires to 10 respondents. The results for the fisrt research question showed that 90% of respondents said that they assumed that listening is not easy to be learnt. Moreover, the results for the second research question revealed that 80% of the respondents claimed that they have problems in vocabulary, pronunciation particularly in linking verb. In addition, 100% of respondents said that they have diffilcuties in speaking speed during listening the audio. In conclusion, the study reported that learning listening is not easy, and it is
caused by the freshmen’s problems in vocabulary, pronunciation particularly in linking verb, and in speed during listening the audio.
Keywords: freshmens’ difficulties, learning listening INTRODUCTION
Listening is a basic skill which should be mastered by the students particularly freshmen level who learn English as a Foreign language (EFL). Learning listening course at university level is very difficult because they have to recognize sound of words, pronunciation, and English in context. Through learning and mastering those apsects, it may affect to their speaking skill, then to other skill such writing. Unfortunately, in fact many freshmen gain difficulties in learning listening course beacuse they have problems in vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking speed, and uncommon activity in listening spoken English.
To solve the problems aforementioned, the freshmen have to enhance their practice in learning listening. They often need to practice although only in a short time in a day because a little practice every day is very valuable then a lot of practice concentered in a short time (Sharpe, 2005) as quated by Hidayat (2014, p. 84). Through that way, it is expected to minimize their problems in mastering listening skill. Besides, the teacher should apply a proper strategy or technique implemented in the classroom when teaches listening to the students.
Pillay (2013), investigating foreign language learning through listening strategies delivered in L1.
Regarding to the three previous studies above, the first and third previous studies are dissimilar, meanwhile, the second study is similar to the present study. In addition, the writersaddress two research questions: (1) Do the freshmen find out the difficulties in learning listening?(2) What
are the freshmen’s difficulties in learning listening?In relation to the answers of these research questions, those are going to be discussed in discussion session of this study.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The definition freshmen’s difficulties
To begin with, the writers higlight the term ‘freshmen’s difficulties’. ɒased on Arlington’s (1891, p. 2); Bruce’s et al., (2001, p. 689); and Sue and Vicky’s (2010) definitions, those can be elaborated that freshmen’s difficulties is the term which relates to the mental condition at which the students in first-year of college or university level found a particular case concerning with their lesson at school. In relation to the present study, freshmen’s difficulties is a condition at which the students gain difficulties or problems during their learning, particularly for freshmen level in English education program.
Defining listening
After discussing the term freshmen’s difficulties, the writers then discuss‘listening’. According to Devine (1982) as quoted by Hamouda (2013, p. 114); An ILA Definitions of listening (1995) as quoted by Wolvin (2010, p. 9), the definitions can be elaborated that listening is the crusial skill which involves a process of transfering verbal information to be understood, then responded into verbal messages and action.
Listening approaches
After discussing the term ‘listening’, the writersdelineate an approaches in learning listening.In learning listening, there are two approaches within teaching and learning listening in and outside calssroom. Wilson (2008, p. 15) highlights bottom-up and top-down approaches as follows:
1. Bottom-up approach
This approach emphasizes the decoding of the smallest units-phonemes and syllables, besides leading the listeners towards meaning.
2. Top-down approach
This approach emphasizes the use of background knowledge to predict content. This approach is based on discrete units of language in the text. It means that it refers to knowledge of the speaker context or analogy.
METHODS Research Design
In this present study, the writers apply a cross-sectional survey design because theycollect the data which only take in a short time (Creswell, 2012, p. 377). Thus, the writers decide to apply a cross-sectional survey design because they are able to gain the data in a short time.
Participants and Research Site
In this present study, the writers selected 10 from 22 EFL freshmen as the respondents in a particular class from English Education Program, a private University, in Ciamis. The reason for selecting them, because in freshmen level, the students normally find out the difficulties in learning listening. Thus, the writers need to investigate their difficulties during learning listening course as the reference to give them the suggestion as the solutions. As previously mentioned, the research site of this present study was taken place in a particular private University located in Ciamis regency, particularly in an English education program. This private university was selected because the writers are students where they are learning nowadays.
Data Collection Procedure
The data were obtained by administering questionnaires to 10 from 22 respondents which are selected purposively from a particular class. The questionnaires consisted of 7 questions to be answered by the respondents. The time for answering the questionnaires is when they have leisure and they need to answer the questionnaires during 15 minutes. Then, the questionnaires were collected by the writers after the respondents answered the whole questions.
Data Analysis
After collecting the data, the writers analyzed the whole answers qualitatively. However, quantification is also used to describe the data in percentage.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION F indings
In interpreting the data, the writers analyzed all answers written by the 10 freshmen as the respondents. According to the answers, the writers summarize and presented them in percentage in the following table:
No. Statements Responses
SA A N D SD
1. I realize that listening is an important course.
30% 70% - - -
2. Listening is gratifying activity to be learnt. 10% 50% 30% 10% - 3. I find it out that learning listening is not easy. 10% 80% 10% - - 4. I have difficulties in vocabulary, and pronunciation
particularly in linking verb. 20% 60% 10% - 10%
5. I have difficulties in speaking speed during listening
the audio. 20% 80% - - -
Note:
SA : Strongly Agree
A : Agree
N : Neither Agree nor Disagree
D : Disagree
(Suggested by Dornyei & Taguchi, 2010, pp. 20-37). Based on the data in relation to the difficulties in learning listening faced by the freshmen aforementioned, the writers explain each statement as follow.
Statement no. 1 shows that all of the respondents realize; listening is an important course. They know that listening plays an essential role in English. That is in line with the
proof that there is not respondent who answers ‘Neither ɑgree nor Disagree’, ‘Disagree’, and ‘Strongly Disagree’. Meanwhile, statement no. 2 points out that a half of the respondents regard that listening is gratifying activity to be learnt. Statement no. 3 draws that more than a half of the respondents regard, learning listening is not easy. Most of the students or the respondents agree that they feel difficult in learning listening. Then, Statement no. 4 shows that most of them face difficulties in learning vocabulary, and pronunciation particularly in linking verb. Finally, statement no. 5 shows that most of them feel difficulties in speaking speed. They have difficulties in speaking speed during listening the audio.
Based on the data aforementioned, those can be concluded that the most of freshmen realize that listening is an important course, but it is gratifying activity to be learnt. In fact, they face some difficulties in learning listening, such as: having difficulties in vocabulary, and pronunciation particularly in linking verb.
Besides, the writers also add 2 additional questions to the respondents in order to strengthen the data. Those questions are numbered by 6 and 7 as follow:
Question no. 6 is “Is there any other difficulties that you face in learning listening except some points aforementioned? If yes, please mentioned it!” ɑccording to the answers, 80% of the respondents answered No, there is not.Meanwhile, there are 2 respondents (20%) who have the other difficulties in learning listening except some points on the table. One of them said, “Yes, I think there is some difficulties in lerning listening such as the audio that not clearly and the situation which not suitable for learning listening such as
in the classroom that is so noisy.” It means that she experiences a difficulty in learning listening if there are many audios that are not clear and she will be more comfortable to learn if the situation is in the condusive classroom. In the other hands, another respondent answers,
“Yes, I little bit have difficulties in listen what the word that native speaker says.” It means that she does not recognize or understand word by word if the native speaker says within the audio listened.
Question no. 7 is “Do you think that bottom-up and top-down approaches could improve your listening comprehension? Please mention it!” Regarding to the second additional question, the writers need to present the respondents’ answers below:
R1 : “Yes, because bottom-up technique/approaches is the basic technique of listening. Thus, we have to learn it well and top-down as well. If we have mastered those approaches automatically we could learn listening aesily.”
R2 : “Yes, it can be improve my listening comprehension because those are the basic technique
of listening.”
R3 : “Yeah, I think it’s getting help.”
R4 : “Yes, because with those method I can learn listening better than before, such as listen the audio and write what the audio says.”
R5 : “Yes, I do. Because bottom-up and top-down approaches are the proper technique to enhance my listening comprehension, particularly when I am a freshman who haven’t learnt listening before.”
R6 : “Yes, I do.”
R7 : “Yes, because we often heard the audio, so we can improve our listening comprehenssion
.”
R8 : “Yes, I do. Because I got a knowledge, I found many vocabularies, my tenses and my
R9 : “Yes I do, but not any more. I need the isteresting method to study some lesson that I felt
difficult for me, and about bottom-up and top-down approaches I think that methods are not too interest for me. So I can’t follow the lecturer well.”
R10 : “No, I don’t”
Note: the answers above are originally quoted from the respondents’ statements.
Dealing with the data above, those can be concluded that the difficulties faced by the freshmen are categorized as a sufficient complicated. Besides, thestatements on the table
assert the additional comments dealing with freshmen’s difficulties such as: the audio that not clearly and the situation which not suitable for learning listening in the classroom that is so noisy and one of the respondents has difficulties in listening what the word pronounced by the native speaker.
Discussion
After highlighting the results of the present study, the writers then answer the research questions addressed. The answers are as follow:
Research question 1: Do the freshmen find out the difficulties in learning listening?
Dealing with the research question addressed, the answer is based on the results gained in the findings. Thus, the first research question can be answered that the most of the respondents find out the difficulties in learning listening. This answer is proved with the evidences taken from the answers from the statement no. 3 in questionniare which states that 80% of the respondents agree that learning listening is not easy. From theses evidences, explicitly, the answer for the first research question is: Yes, they do, because the freshmen get the difficulties such in the area vocabulary, pronunciation particularly in linking verb, speaking speed, and uncommon activity in listening spoken English.
Research question 2: What are the freshmen’s difficulties in learning listening?
Dealing with the second research question, the answer is based on the results gained in the findings taken from statements number 3 , 4 and 5. To strengthen the data, the writers also take the question number 6. Generally, the answers from those numbers reveal that the respondents find out that first listening is not easy. Second, they have difficulties in vocabulary, and pronunciation particularly in linking verb. Third, having difficulties in speaking speed during listening the audio. The last, the audio that not clearly and the situation which not suitable for learning listening in the classroom that is so noisy and one of the respondents has difficulties in listening what the word pronounced by the native speaker.From those evidences, explicitly the answer of the second research question is: the freshmen gain the difficulties in vocabulary, pronunciation, and speaking speed.
After answering the research questions above, those can be inferred that learning listening is difficult for the freshmen. Besides, those difficulties cover difficulties in vocabulary, pronunciation, and speaking speed. Thus, to overcome those difficulties, teacher has to be creative to apply the proper teaching strategy, meanwhile the freshmen have to learn listening through having maximalspirit and good learning style.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
.With regard to the results and discussion of this study, it can be concluded that students at university level particularly freshmen find out several difficulties in learning listening. Furthermore, the difficulties cover three aspects: difficulties in vocabulary, difficulties in pronunciation particularly in linking verb, and uncommon in listening spoken English, besides getting difficulties in speaking speed during listening the audio.
REFERENCES
Arlington, (1891). The Cambridge Tribune. Journal of Cambridge Publik Library, 13(48). Retrieved on August 3rd , 2014, from:http://cambridge.dlconsulting.com/cgi-bin/cambridge?a=d&d=Tribune18910207-01.1.2&e=---en-20--1--txt-IN---.
Bozorgian, H., & Pillay, H . (2013). Enhancing Foreign Language Learning through Listening Strategies Delivered in L1: an Experimental Study. International Journal from Intruction e-ISSN, 6(1), 105-122. Retrieved on June 13th, 2014, from:http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED539838.pdf.
Bruce, M. G. et al. (2001). Risk Factors Meningococcal Disease in College Students. The Journal of American Medically Assosia tion, 286(6). Retrieved on August 3rd , 2014, from:http://jamanetwork.com/solr/searchresults.aspx?q=Risk%20Factors%20for%20M eningococcal%20Disease%20in%20College%20Students%29&allJournals=1&SearchS ourceType=1
Creswell, J.W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4th Edition). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Dornyei, Z., & Taguchi, T. (2010). Questionnaires in Second Language Research:
Construction, Administration, and Processing (2nd Edition). New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis.
Fraenkel, J., Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education (8thEdition). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
Hamouda, A. (2013). An Investigation of Listening Comprehension Problems Encountered by Saudi Students in the EL Listening Classroom. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 2(2). Retrieved on July 15th , 2014, from:http://www.hrmars.com/admin/pics/1882.pdf.
Hidayat, Y. (2014). Some Sophormores’ Difficulties in Mastering English Listening Comprehension (A Survey Study Conducted at English Education Program of Galuh University) .Journal of EFL Apllied Linguistics, 1(1), 80-85. Ciamis: English Education Program, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education Sciences Galuh University.
English Education Program. (2013). Syllabus Listening for Spesific Purpose. Ciamis: English Education Program Study, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education Sciences, Galuh University.
Ma, T. (2009). An Empirical Study on Teaching Listening in CLT. International Education Studies, 2(2) 126-134. Retrieved on June 13th, 2014, from:http://www.ccsenet.org/Journal/index.php/ies/article/viewFile/1708/1645.
Sue, A., & Vicky, R. (2010). Aspects of Learning in a Mental Health Setting. Sosial Care for Exellence, 14(2) 35-42. Retrieved on July 16th ,2014, from:http://beta.scie-
socialcareonline.org.uk/aspects-of-learning-in-a-mental-health-setting/r/a1CG0000000GZuUMAW.
Wilson, J. J. (2008). How to Teach Listening. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
A SOCIO-COGNITIVE ANALYSIS ON A NEWS ARTICLE ON MEDIA FREEDOM
Ani Fiani1); EndangSetyaningsih2)
annie_fiani@yahoo.com1); aningsetya@yahoo.com2) Abstract
This article presents an approach to study semantic macrostructures and micro structures in a discourse, using Van Dijk’s socio-cognitive framework of analysis. Analysis of macro and micro structures are used to reveal the reasons/ motives/ hidden agenda which underlie the semiotic choices made by speaker/ writer. Semantic macrostructure refers to the theme/ topic of the discourse and micro
structure refers to the ‘loaded’ word/ phrase/ clause chosen by the participant
representing his/ her identity, role, relationship, goal, knowledge, and ideology; used in the on ongoing social action, and interpreted in relation to its time and place of use (context model). The inference of macro structure and interpretation of micro structure and its context model are exemplified using a text from The
ɛakarta Post entitled “ɛokowi Urged to Explicitly Spell Out Papua’s Media
Freedom”. From the sample, it is learned that words are selected by the speaker based on the intention and reflect power and role of the speaker. These words eventually form macrostructure of the text.
Keywords: context model, microstructure, news, semantic macrostructure, socio-cognitive
INTRODUCTION
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies important social problems and political issues. CDA views discourse as
‘social practice’ (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997, p.258), that is interested in the relations between language and society. The relationship between language and society can be described, interpreted and explained through studying and analyzing spoken and written texts. CDA primarily aims to ‘critically analyze those who are in power, those who are
responsible, and those who have means and the opportunity to deal with social problems’
(van Dijk, 1986, p.4), such as discrimination, power abuse, social injustice, manipulation, which are especially caused by public texts or talks.
In studying social problems, van Dijk develops sociocognitive approach or the framework of the discourse–cognition–society triangle which may mean the relations between mind, discursive interaction and society (van Dijk in Wodak and Meyer, 2009) or the relevant (local and global) context of dicourse (p.65) which mediated by context model. It
is ‘definition of situation’ that conntrols the adequate adaptation of discourse production and
comprehension to their social environment (p.66). This approach examines the way cognitive phenomena (mental representations and the process of language users) are related to the structures of discourses, verbal interaction, communicative events and situations, as well as social structures (van Dijk in Wodak and Meyer,2009).
The explanation of social structure needs macro and micro analysis of a society which involves social group and their interaction. Macrostructures focuses on a study of global meanings, topics or themes (what discourses are (globally) about). Discursively, the topics and themes are characteristically expressed in titles, abstracts, summaries and announcements (p.68). Whereas, micro structures focus on local meanings such as the meaning of words.
Based on the explanation above, the macrostructures and interpretation of microstructure and its context model will be applied or examplified using a text from The Jakarta Post–Thursday, May β8 β015, entitled “ɛokowi Urged to Explicitly Spell Out Papua’s
Media Freedom”.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Van Dijk’s Socio-cognitive Approach
Socio-cognitive approach is a major strand in critical discourse analysis (CDA). The main proponent if this approach is TeeunVan Dijk who prefers the term Critical Discourse Study (CDS) to CDA. Van Dijk (2009, p. 64; 2008a), noted that socio-cognitive approach is a framework to formulate and illustrate some of the principles he tries to observe when doing CDS.
Further Van Dijk (2009) mentioned that the approach emphasizes the study of cognition in critical analysis of discourse, communication, and interaction. This means, the approach also addresses mental representations, the processes of language users when they are communicating and interacting (including their knowledge and ideologies). It also means that the study touches the structure of discourse and communicative events/ situations. In a nutshell, as the name suggests, socio-cognitive approach has three important intertwined dimensions: discourse, cognition, and society.
ɑs a strand in CDɑ (or CDS in Van Dijk’s term) analysis using socio-cognitive approach aims at uncovering/ demystifying, exposing and combating social unjust such as power abuse and domination. It is therefore a study which is problem-based instead of discipline-based and thus should be carried out in collaboration with the ‘oppressed’ group/ society (Van Dijk, 2009, p.63)
Socio-cognitive approach, just like another approach in CDA, also faced harsh criticism especially on its validity, credibility, and fairness for at least two reasons. First, the criterion
for judging what’s unjust or illegitimate is based on internationally recognized human being (Van Dijk, 2009, p. 63). This may mean the analyst is using goggles that perhaps does not fit the accepted local wisdom, or may eventually eliminating/ changing culture or custom of a society which is viewed as ‘bad’ into a new custom/ culture which is ‘good’ in the perspective of the analyst.
Second, the interpretation of the data including in socio-cognitive approach relies heavily on the analyst. Although references and theoretical basis for analysis and interpretation are well addressed and data are scientifically taken, the interpretation itself is mainly by analyst and this may raise question on its validity and credibility. In addition, each analyst may develop different framework and integrates multiple disciplines for analysis (CDA is multi-discipline) and this framework/ approach and discipline may change over the years. However; Wodak and Meyer (2009, p.5) mentioned that regardless the confusion of
the school, CDɑ “allows continuous debates, for changes in the aims and goals, and for
innovation” and thus making it an ‘open school’.
Analyzing Semantic Macrostructure
Van Dijk (2009) recommends researcher to firstly look at macrostructure of the text. Macrostructure refers to the topic or theme of the discourse being studied. It expresses the overall content and represents meaning or information most readers will memorize best about the discourse (p.68).
Analyzing Micro structure
While macrostructure refers to the global meaning of a discourse, microstructure deals with the micro aspect of a discourse. The micro aspect includes e.g. local meaning (word meaning) and structure of a discourse. In looking at macrostructure, analyst is doing top down analysis, while in looking at microstructure, analyst is doing bottom up analysis. Words and structures are studied to uncover their meaning, intention, and ideology behind them. As mentioned by Van Dijk (2009, p.70) CDS is interested in analyzing many forms of implicit or indirect meaning such as vagueness, allusion, etc.
In a discourse, choice of structure and words are viewed to carry certain intention and
they reflect the user’s (can be individual or group) role, power, and ideology. These choices of micro element in a discourse then build the macro structure of a discourse. In a reverse angle, when the intention is set, the user of language will select (no matter how automatically the selection is) the micro elements (e.g. word, structure) to deliver the intention. To the reader (if the discourse is written), all of these may appear very subtle and it is the work of
CDS analyst to expose the subtle ‘intention’ of the text author.
To interpret the micro structure using socio-cognitive approach, analyst could turn to context model. Context model is the cognitive device that serves as mediating bridge between discourse and society. Context model are organized by simple schema consisting categories such as spatiotemporal setting, participants (identities, roles, relationships goal, knowledge, ideologies), and ongoing social action.
By studying the micro element in the frame of context model, analyst will be able to determine the appropriateness of an utterance in regards to the categories (e.g. who said it, in what situation). It is also possible to spot power relation among the participants (e.g. who said what, to whom, in what capacity) and detect abuse of power or other form of social unjust (e.g. is there strong threatening/ intimidating words, or is there effort to soften/ excuse effect of power abuse).
Introduction of Sample Text
Title of the sample text used in this study is ‘ɛokowi urged to explicitly spell out Papua’s media freedom’. This sample text was taken from the Jakarta Post published on Thursday, May 28 2015. This text discusses about Human Right Watch (HRW) deputy Asia
director Phelim ɜane’s comments in response to two of ɛokowi’s Cabinet Ministers’
statements, Tedjo Edhy Purdijatno (Coordinating Political, Legal, and Security Affairs
Minister) and Ryamizard Ryacudu (Defense minister) which resisted the President’s promise
to lift restrictions on foreign Journalists covering Papua. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Detail study on sample text Macrostructure
Macrostructure or theme of the text is identified as M. There is one M in the text that
covers the point of view of ɜine in responding the statements on Papua’s media freedom. M1: ɛokowi urged to explicitly spell out Papua’s media freedom in response to contradictive
statements by two ɛokowi’s ministers
Microstructure
No. Words/ phrases Participant Place Time Social Action
used the word ‘contradict’ to describe the opposition view of two ɛokowi’s Ministers after
Jokowi promised to lift restrictions on foreign journalists covering Papua. This word was chosen by Kine on Thursday in an unapropriate way. This word has negative meaning that
two ɛokowi’s Ministers strongly disagree to the president’s statement. ɒut actually this case is two ɛokowi’s Ministers suggest to monitor foreign journalists’ activities.
Willful ignorance or outlight hostility
‘Willful ignorance or outlight hostility’ is uttered by ɜine on Thursday. He used this phrase to point out two ɛokowi’s Minister, Purdijatno and Ryacudu as key ministers. This
option is an unappropriate way because has negative meaning. This phrase indicates that Kine
dislike to the statements of two ɛokowi’s Ministers.
Doom
In an newspaper interview, ɜine used the word ‘doom’ to describe President’s plan if
the president does not discuss the obstacles of Papua’s media freedom with his two key ministers, Purdijatno and Ryacudu. this word is used in appropriate way because Kine is as
Human Rights Watch (HRW) director who strongly agrees with the president’s promise to
lift restrictions on foreign journalists. Obstructionism
Obstractionism is uttered by Kine. This word is to describe the obstacles of the
president’s plan to lift restrictions on foreign journalists covering Papua. This option is used
to describe that those obstacles should be clear as soon as possible because Kine hopes President realises that plan in the near time.
‘Head-on’ is uttered by ɜine. This option is chosen by ɜine to describe that the president should discuss together with his two key ministers about the obstructionism or
obstacles of Papua’s media freedom plan and his Ministers’ statements who strongly disagree
with his promise. ɜine’s intention is to urge ɛokowi to explicitly spell out that media
freedom. Monitor
In an interview, minister Tedjo used the word ‘monitor’ (as quoted by ɜine) to describe
what the government do to the journalist. This option is appropriate IF it is related to Tedjo’s
role and position i.e. government representative. This option ‘positive-fy’ the government’s act. This word; however, is viewed as an euphemism for his counterpart. This will become clear in the next chosen word for analysis.
Snooping
‘Snooping’ is uttered by ɜine. ɒy its tone/ effect, this word contradicts the word ‘monitor’ used by minister Tedjo. ɑlthough the two words more or less refer to the same
activity (seeing, looking, observing), they carry different meaning. Snooping is more negative while monitoring is more positive. Snooping carries the meaning of spying, without permission, illegal, and is related to crime. Meanwhile, monitor carries the meaning of watching, caring, ensuring things are in order. With such weighted meanings, it is quite logical that they are uttered by two opposing parties.
Aren’t spying
‘ɑren’t spying’ is uttered by minister Tedjo. ɑppearing after the word ‘monitor’, ‘aren’t spying’ shows defensive statement from the minister. It indicates that the minister is
aware of the possibility of the word ‘monitor’ to be criticized and to be said as ‘word of the party with power’ and thus he precautious tries to explicitly ensure the opposing parties that
they are not spying (or snooping in ɜine’s word).
‘Good news’ and ‘Sedition’
This word is used by ministerRymizardRyacudu to describe negative reports on Papua. Using this word, the minister is using his authoritative power to label the report as sedition, a serious crime that can send a person i.e. journalist to prison. This is thus an intimidating and
threatening act by the minister, forcing journalist to present only ‘good news’ which is not
clearly defined by the minister. For journalist, there is a famous idiom: bad news is good
news; it means that bad incident usually attracts readers’ attention/ curiosity and thus worth reporting. When the minister said “…produce ‘good news’”, the minister ‘good news’ does not seem to be similar with the journalist’ good news. Good news for the minister means positive report because he labels negative report as sedition. While for journalists, good news
can be either positive or negative; depends on the ‘newsworthiness’ of an event/ condition. In this case, the use of the word ‘sedition’ exposes the minister power and his ability to use
his power to threat other parties. ɑnd the word ‘good news’ although mentioned by ɜine as vague, it is actually clear that it means pleasing news (for the governments’ side)
Expel
The word is uttered by ministerRymizardRyacudu and is quoted by Kine. Regardless whether Kine accurately quoted the word or not, the word illustrates the power of the user,
awareness of power of the user so that s/he can ‘expel’ other parties when required. The word clearly shows use of power in way that is abusive.
Held hostage
‘Held hostage’ is another strong phrase from ɜine. Use of strong words is typical
decision commonly made by activists, including Kine. This indicates that Kine is fighting the
power of the ministers and showing that he is not ‘under’ the power (control) of the
government. The phrase is a metaphoric expression to describe that the journalist are not given their basic right i.e. freedom. The ‘negative’ words are means to justify and reinforce that something is not right; that the ideal condition is freedom. It also ensures readers that the
government has power and they abuse the power over the ‘weak’ i.e. journalists. Truth remained hidden
The words represent ɜine’s view over the government’s ‘bad deed’. Ideally, truth is not and shall not be hidden. The sentence again showing that ɜine’s power is used to against ministers’ power. This is done by explicitly accusing the government for doing bad deed ;
against the ideal. The use of the word ‘remained’ indicates maintenance of a current situation.
It shows that the event/ condition has been as it is. In this case, Kine accuses the government on doing something bad and at once telling that the ‘bad deed’ has been going on since before the surgery.
CONCLUSION
This paper has examined the macrostructures and the interpretation of microstructure and its context model by examplifying a news article on media freedom that was taken from the Jakarta Post published on Thursday, May 28 2015. Based on the analysis, the sample text indicate the construction of socio-political ideologies. These ideologies are shown through language or selected words/phrases when the participants comment or respon the President’s premise to lift restrictions on foreign journalists in Papua to achieve their purposes.In other
words, the selection words are based on the speaker’s intention and they reflect power and
role of the speaker. These results are in line with Wodak’s statement (β01β) that language choices, social identity or status is manifested through ideology. Therefore, the selected words form macrostructure of the text.
REFERENCES
Fairclough, N., and Wodak, R. 1997. Critical Discourse Ana lysis.Discourse as Social Interaction, in Van Dijk (Ed.), 258-284. London: Sage.
Van Dijk, T.A. 1986. Racism and the press. London: Arnold.
Van Dijk, T.A. 2008a. Discourse and Context. A Sociocognitive approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University press.
Van Dijk, T.A. 2009. Society and Discourse: How context controls text and talk. Cambridge University Press.
Wodak, R. 2012. Language, power, and identity. Journal of Language Teaching, 45, pp. 215-233.
THE ANALYSIS OF METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS AND POST LISTENING FEEDBACK ON EFL LISTENING ACTIVITIES
Dodi Mulyadi
dodi_mulyadi_english@yahoo.com; dodi@unimus.ac.id Abstract
Listening is a critical component of effective communication and commonly regarded as the difficult skill by foreign language learners. Mostly, they find it difficult in understanding listening materials. They are still unable to comprehend or to understand the spoken words or phrases in the English. Thus, there are many factors affecting listening ability in mastering language. Metacognitive Awareness and Post Listening Feedback are used to find out the factors relating to students’ strategy use and their obstacles that they have experienced in comprehending spoken language. The research was designed quantitatively. The instruments for collecting data were Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) and a questionnaire of post listening feedback sheet. Participants of the study were fourteen English Education students at Univesitas Muhammadiyah Semarang in academic year 2015/2016. The findings indicated that the difficulties confronted by the learners are recognizing sounds, recognizing words, guessing word meaning, recognizing grammar patterns, working out what
the speaker’s means. In addition, the reliability coefficient of MɑLQ calculated in this study was 0.79 with students’ metacognitve awareness comprising Problem
solving with 4.4, Planning and evaluation with 3.70, Directed attention with 3.70, Directed attention with 3.0, Person knowledge with 2.60. It can be concluded that the results can simply help instructors to find out the appropriate strategies and draw their attention to various information from students’ difficulties to help their students increase their listening ability to comprehend spoken English.
Keywords: metacognitive awareness, post listening feedback, and EFL listening activities
INTRODUCTION
In a language classroom, listening ability plays a essential role in the development of other language skills (Ratebi and Amirian 2013). However, there is still plenty of evidence that listening is underrated in teaching Language. When there is a stress on contact hours, frequently listening session is declined. Learners are infrequently assessed on their listening skills, and the problems of many poor listeners pass undiagnosed. The methodology of the listening lesson has been little discussed, researched or challenged; and there is a tendency for teachers to work through well-worn routines without entire conviction. Thus, a faddy
commitment to an ‘integrated skills’ approach as an alternative way may result in listening
being consigned to a quick topic-driven session packed between reading and writing, which tend to be considered as more tractable and controllable skills (Field, 2008: 1).
Most people perceive that listening is difficult skill in teaching EFL because it is widely
Learning Listening Comprehension is not easy but in general most of the many students who ignore it. It is a fact that still occurs from year to year in the world of education, especially for university students. Besides learning styles students are also very decisive in the success of learning. However, of the many problems faced by students in learning Listening Comprehension, there must be a right way or a solution to solve these problems. Therefore, there are many factors affecting listening ability in mastering language. Metacognitive Awareness and Post Listening Feedback are used to find out the factors
relating to students’ strategy use and their obstacles that they have experienced in
comprehending spoken language
The objectives of the study are to describe students’ metacognitive awareness of listening strategies and their difficulties in listening activities in order to help them to solve academic listening problems and guide them to strengthen their listening ability.
LITERATURE REVIEW The nature of listening
Listening skill is a passive activity which is a complex, active process for listeners to discriminate between sounds, understand vocabulary and grammatical structures, interpret stress and intonation. It also reserves what was gathered in all of the above, and interpret it within the immediate as well as the larger socio-cultural context of the utterance. Coordinating all of this involves a great deal of mental activity on the part of the listener (Vandergrift, 1999). Thus, listening comprehension is a highly integrative skill. It refers to the hard work activity that needs more analysis and support. Thus, listening comprehension plays important role in mastering language. It can facilitate the emergence of other language skills. For these reasons, an awareness and deployment of effective listening comprehension strategies can help students capitalize on the language input they are receiving.
Schultz ( 2003) uses the term listening more than just hearing. He suggests how teachers or lecturers attend to individuals, the classroom as a group, the broader social context, and, cutting across all of these, to silence and acts of silencing. They listen for the individual voices and gestures in their classrooms; they also listen for the heartbeat or tenor of the group. Listening in pedagogical perspective refers to the knowledge of who the learner is and the understandings that both the teacher and learner bring to a situation constitute the starting place for teaching.
Listening has a greater importance in foreign language classrooms. In mastering language, the role of comprehensible input play pivotal role dealing with second language acquisition research that has given a major boost to listening (Dirven 1993).
Metacognitive Listening Strategy
Metacognition is defined as a construct having to do with thinking about one’s thinking or the human ability to be conscious of one’s mental processes (Nelson in Rahimi & Katal, 2012). They also state that successful learners are aware of their learning process and the use of different strategies that meet the requirements of different learning tasks and situations. Therefore, Metacognitive strategies refer to find out about learning. It means that learners learn how to learn with metacognitive strategies. By facilitating with knowing this language learning strategy, learners are getting in charge in thinking about the process of learning while they are planning, monitoring, and evaluating their own learning, for instance, pre tasks activities.
strategies involve conscious management and regulation over learning process, like planning, concentrating and monitoring.
The awareness-raising activities at the metacognitive level helps learners achieve their learning goals. For instance, they become more skilled in the manipulation of linguistics input. it is also useful for allowing them to become independent learners of the language (Patricia and Hernández 2012). EFL learners that use metacognitive strategies and make decisions about whether to apply various strategies can develop and improve their performance employing in procedural knowledge. Thus, the procedural knowledge is like learners' plan, solve problems and evaluate their tasks and performance.
Post Listening F eedback
To encourage self-diagnosis, a post-listening feedback can be useful. Field (2008) states
that “listening feedback can encourage learners to classify the problems that have been experienced (admittedly, this is not always an easy thing for them to do)”. It asks them
(assisted by the tape script) to provide concrete examples of breakdowns of decoding or understanding, thus increasing their awareness of where their weaknesses lie. It also draws their attention to the various compensatory strategies that they use where decoding has failed. The other value of such feedback sheets is that they provide a further source of information for the instructor, who can then design remedial exercises in a more targeted way. Post listening feedback from learners supports the view that strategy training contributes usefully to a listening study. Their comments in questionnaire of feedback sheet suggest that it improves their confidence enables them to extract more from L2 input than they might otherwise.
METHODS
The research was designed quantitatively. Participants of the study were fourteen English Education students at Univesitas Muhammadiyah Semarang in academic year 2015/2016. The instruments for collecting data were Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) and a questionnaire of post listening feedback sheet.
Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ): This questionnaire consists of 21 randomly ordered items related to L2 listening comprehension. The items measure the perceived use of the strategies and processes underlying five factors related to the regulation of L2 listening comprehension. These five factors include Planning and Evaluation (how listeners prepare themselves for listening and evaluate the results of their listening efforts), Problem Solving (inferencing on what is not understood and monitoring those inferences), Directed Attention (how listeners concentrate, stay on task, and focus their listening efforts), Mental Translation (the ability to use mental translation parsimoniously), and Person Knowledge (learner perceptions concerning how they learn best, the difficulty presented by L2 listening, and their self-efficacy in L2 listening).
Post listening feedback sheet was used to know students’ difficulties of listening
comprehension. It comprises three parts including overall recognition, problems in recognising words, and Problems with meaning.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The findings of post listening feedback sheet indicated that the difficulties confronted by the learners are recognizing sounds, recognizing words, guessing word meaning,
recognizing grammar patterns, working out what the speaker’s means.
MALQ In general, It has 21 items, each is rated on a six-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree- 6=strongly agree). The results of MALQ can be seen as the table 1.
Sub-scale No. of items Mean Per subscale
The table 1 indicates that students' manipulation of these strategies varies across different subscales, (problem solving, planning and evaluation, mental translation, person knowledge, and directed attention). Students' highest use of strategies was in association with problem solving with score 4.4. However, the scores of planning and evaluation, directed attention, mental translation, and person knowledge are on moderate level. Then, the lowest was associated with personal knowledge with score 2.6.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that the results can simply help instructors to find out the
appropriate strategies and draw their attention to various information from students’
difficulties to help their students increase their listening ability to comprehend spoken English.
REFERENCES
Carrier, K.A. 2004. Listening: A Framework for Teaching across Differences. New York: Teachers College Press. Retrieved from: <Go to ISI>://WOS:000221257100012). Dirven, R. 1993. Listening in Language Learning. Journal of System, 21(2), pp. 264–68.
Retrieved from: http://jalt-publications.org/old_tlt/files/97/sep/nunan.html.
Field, J. 2008. Listening in the Language Classroom. UK, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Field, J. 2010. Listening in the Language Classroom. UK, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Patricia, S., and Barbosam, H. 2012. Applying a Metacognitive Model of Strategic Learning for Listening Comprehension by Means of Online-Based Activities, in A College Course. __________: Universidad de La Sabana.
Rahimi, M., and Maral, K. 2012. Metacognitive Listening Strategies Awareness in Learning English as Aforeign Language: A Comparison between University and High-School Students. Journal Procedia (Social and Behavioral Sciences), 31, pp. 82–89. Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.020.
Ratebi, Z., and Zahra, A. 2013. The Use of Metacognitive Strategies in Listening Comprehension by Iranian University Students Majoring in English: A Comparison between High and Low Proficient Listeners. Journal of Studies in Education, 3(1), pp.
_____. Retrieved from:
http://www.macrothink.org/journal/index.php/jse/article/view/2969.
Serri, F., Aliakbar, J.B., and Akbar, H. 2012. Cognitive, Metacognitive, and Social/Affective Strategies in Listening Comprehension and Their Relationships with Individual Differences. Journal of Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(4), pp. 843–49. Vandergrift, L. 1999. Facilitating Second Language Comprehension: Acquiring Successful
EMPLOYING A TEACHER OF BAHASA INDONESIA IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING THROUGH CO-TEACHING APPROACH
Misbahudin
Misbahudin.Unigal.mizbach01@yahoo.co.id Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Teaching English as a foreign language has been an important issue in Indonesian education system. From time to time, the purpose and role of English among Indonesian society has been changed. English is not only learned for academic purposes, but also for general communication as an international language. Consequently, it is understandable when many studies aimed to get successful English language teaching and learning have been conducted.
Furthermore, English teachers are intended to be creative and innovative to improve their professionalism in teaching English. Teacher can also do the continuous relationship with other parties in gaining the meaningful and successful teaching and learning activity. Co-teaching is an alternative concept which can be applied in Co-teaching English in foreign language context.
Meanwhile, Indonesian language is the national language which is primarily used by Indonesian people, especially in academic activity. Sometimes, English teacher also use Indonesian language to teach English. Although the role of Indonesian language is as lingua franca among Indonesian ethnics, it will not be a mistake if we assumed that Indonesian language is a native language for Indonesian people.
Based on the above discussion, when Indonesian students learn English, they will always compare with what they have known in Indonesian language. Translation and inferring will be dominant activities when they learn and apply English in teaching and learning process, at least in the process of thinking. Indonesian language, which is positioned as a native language for students, will have great effect to the process of teaching and learning of English. Their competence in Indonesian language, we can consider it will positively contribute to the process of learning English. In contrast, when they are less competence in Indonesian language, it can also negatively contribute to their process of learning English.
From the explanation above, English teachers need to cooperate and collaborate with Indonesian language teacher (the teachers who teach Bahasa Indonesia) to improve students’ competence in English through the teaching and learning process. This paper will discuss the concept of co-teaching approach in teaching English with Indonesian language teacher as the co-teacher. The result of the discussion can be an alternative solution or even a new method for both language teachers.
The effect of native language on foreign language learning
Baron (2001: 65-67) states that native language of every learner is an extremely significant factor in acquisition of a new language. We can think of the native language as
exercising and interfering effect on the target language. ɑlthough the majority of learners’ do
From the above explanation, the English teacher should be fully aware of Indonesian language which is considered as native language of Indonesian learners which will have great influence to the process of teaching and learning of English. In the process of teaching
English materials to their students, they should also consider the students’ competence in Indonesia. If he students are good at writing, speaking, reading and grammar for examples, it can be predicted will have strong effect to their process in learning English productive skill such as writing and speaking.
Furthermore, Baron (2001:66) suggests that steaming form the native language effect as follow:
a. Repair the error of native language interference by acquainting the learner with the native language cause for the error
b. Ideally, every successful learner will hold on to the facilitating effects of the native language and discard the interference
c. Try to lead students to think directly in the target language to help them minimize interference error
Based on the above discussion, we can conclude that Indonesian language teachers can contribute in helping English teacher.
Indonesian language can of course affect the teacher in the teaching and learning
process. ɑlthough the teachers, most of the time, use only the target language and students’
use of dictionary in the classroom prohibited, the teachers often point out the difference between English and Indonesian to avoid frequently made errors (Suwarno, 2001)
The Nature of Co-Teaching
Co-teaching has been defined as an instructional delivery approach in which general and special educators share responsibility for planning, delivery and evaluation of instructional technique for a group of students; general and special educators work in a coactive and coordinated fashion, which involves thejoint teaching of academically and behaviorally heterogeneous groups of students in integrated settings (Bauwens&Hourcade, 1991; Friend & Cook, 1992; Scheffel, Kallam, Smith, and Hoernicke, 1996: Walther-Thomas, Bryant & Land, 1996).
Although co-teaching integrates components of collaboration and team teaching, it is not exclusively collaboration or team teaching. In co-teaching, the teacher to students ratio is decreased (Friend, 2001). Typically, co-teaching is used to provide services for students with mild to moderate disabilities in the general education setting (Sileo, 2003). General and special educators are present while co-teaching in the general classroom, thus preserving joint responsibility for specified classroom instruction (Bauens, Hourcade, & Friend, 1989). Research shows that general educators have proficiency in instructional process used to teach individual students who may learn atypically (Adams & Cessna, 1991: Reeve &Hallahan, 1994: Ripley, 1997 in Sileo, 2005).
Another definition of co-teaching is a service delivery model in which two (or more) educators or other certified staff, contract to share instructional responsibility, for a single group of students, primarily in a single classroom workplace, for specific content objective with mutual ownership, collective resources, and joint accountability. In the big picture, co-teaching deals with consultation, teaming, informal problem solving, and instruction in separate setting, and collegial staff development (Cook & Friend, 2004)
Benefit for teachers and Students
learning opportunities for all students. Co-teaching reduces the students to teacher ratio, making it easier to meet individual students’ needs in an integrated heterogeneous classroom. Co-teaching combines the strengths and resources of two professionals which support instruction and classroom management while allowing more opportunities for the professionals to reflect, monitor, assess, adjust and adapt instruction.
Employing Indonesian Language Teachers in English Language Teaching
As having discussed above, Indonesian language teachers can take important role since
we consider that Indonesian as students’ native language has great influence to the process of learning English. It is too simple if we just consider the teachers only as the sharing partner in teaching English. Moreover, the English teachers can employ them as the co-teacher in applying the discussed co-teaching approach. Now it will be discussed the teachers’ role in teaching and learning of English by applying the six co-teaching approaches (Cook, 2004) One Teach, One Observe
In this approach, an English teacher teaches English to his/her students. An Indonesian language teacher is the observer of the teaching process. The observer gathers the information during the process of teaching and learning activity. He can record what is the skill material given, the method, the students attitude, some obstacles, and so on. Some specific intention
that should be given is to the influence and contribution of students’ competence in
Indonesian language into the process of acquiring English materials. He also observes
intensively what are the students and teacher’s difficulties during the process. Another is the Indonesian language used by both the teacher and the students. Next, the most important point is to compare with what happen in his Indonesian language classroom. It can be assumed that the skill materials given will almost the same (reading, writing, structure, etc.). Afterward, he confirms to the English teacher and then theyanalyze the information together. After intensive discussion and suggest one another, they will make a conclusion about what is he problem, strength and weakness of the process and what they should do for the following activity.
One Teach, One Drift (flow)
While the English teacher is teaching, the Indonesian language teacher circulates through the room. Besides controlling the students’ activity in learning process, the teacher can record any group of students who have the same problems in learning the materials. When the English teacher gives assignment, he can assist the students what can Indonesian language contribute in doing the assignment.
The most important point here, for example in writing activity, is helping students organize their idea in Indonesia before they interfere into English. When they, for example, want to state a paragraph in English, he can ask and check the students first how they organize their idea in Indonesian language. Then he gives suggestions as far as they need to arrange the well-organized paragraph or composition in Indonesia. The next activity is consulting the problems to English teacher who will give some explanation to eliminate
students’ error during the process of interfering.
The Indonesian language teacher will also reflect what the students’ problem in
