The responses of chinese women toward the practices of patriarchal culture as seen through Adeline Yen Mah`s Falling Leaves - USD Repository

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THE RESPONSES OF CHINESE WOMEN TOWARD THE

PRACTICES OF PATRIARCHAL CULTURE AS SEEN

THROUGH ADELINE YEN MAH’S FALLING LEAVES

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

ANINDITYA PUTRI ARUMSARI Student Number: 074214012

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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THE RESPONSES OF CHINESE WOMEN TOWARD THE

PRACTICES OF PATRIARCHAL CULTURE AS SEEN

THROUGH ADELINE YEN MAH’S FALLING LEAVES

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis

THE RESPONSES OF CHINESE WOMEN TOWARD THE

PRACTICES OF PATRIARCHAL CULTURE AS SEEN

THROUHG ADELINE YEN MAH’S FALLING LEAVES

By

Approved by

Ni Luh Putu Rosiandani, S.S, M. Hum. August 12nd, 2011 Advisor

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Take time to laugh for it is the music of the soul

(Anonymous)

Do what you can, for who you can,

with what you have, and where you are

(Anonymous)

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Aninditya Putri Arumsari

Nomor Mahasiswa : 074214012

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

The Responses of Chinese Women toward the Practices of Patriarchal Culture as Seen through Adeline Yen Mah’s Falling Leaves

Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin ataupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 7 September 2011 Yang menyatakan

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Jesus Christ for His never ending blessing and guidance throughout my whole life, especially during the times I spent in finishing my thesis. Without His blessing I will not be able to finish my thesis. I would like to thank my advisor, Ni Luh Putu Rosiandani, S.S, M. Hum., for the advice and guidance which helped me in the process of writing my thesis. I also would like to thank my co-advisor, Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka, M. Hum., for giving me precise correction and suggestion to complete my thesis. I would like to thank my thesis examiner, Dr. F.X. Siswadi, M.A., for his questions and suggestions to enrich my thesis.

I would like to thank my father, Rachmad Haryadi, and my mother Endang Miyastuti who always give their unconditional love to me. I thank them for always supporting me in every situation in my life. I also thank my brothers Daniel Dimas Putra and Teofilus Tri Haryadi, who are very valuable in my life.

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Lastly, my gigantic gratitude goes to Wewe, who always encourages me from the distance. Thank you for the support and the precious time that we have spent during these three years.

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CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ... 7

A. Review of Related Studies ... 7

B. Review of Related Theories ... 10

1. Theory of Character and Characterization ... 10

2. Theory of Patriarchal Culture ... 13

3. Theory of Feminism ... 19

A. The Characterization of Female Characters……….26

1. Adeline ... 27

2. Aunt Baba ... 29

3. Grand Aunt ... 32

4. Grandmother ... 33

5. Lydia ... 35

B. The practices of Patriarchal Culture in the Family ... 37

1. Adeline ... 39

2. Aunt Baba ... 40

5. Lydia ... 49

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1. Adeline ... 53

2. Aunt Baba ... 54

5. Lydia ... 61

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ... 64

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 69

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ABSTRACT

Aninditya Putri Arumsari. The Responses of Chinese Women toward the Practice of Patriarchal Culture as Seen through Adeline Yen Mah’s Falling Leaves. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2011.

In this study, the writer analyzes a novel written by Adeline Yen Mah entitled Falling Leaves. It portrays the patriarchal culture which is adopted by the Chinese society. The novel reveals that Chinese women are considered insignificant and they must bend down to the authority of men in their families. Falling Leaves clearly describes about many obstacles that Chinese women must face as the victim of the practices of patriarchal culture in their families.

There are three problems formulated in this study. The first problem is how the female characters are described. The second problem is how the practices of patriarchal culture are experienced by the female characters and the last problem is about the responses given by each female character toward the practices of the patriarchal culture. In this study, the writer focuses on explaining the five female characters; Adeline, Aunt Baba, Grand Aunt, Grandmother, and Lydia.

The method used in this study was the library research method. The sources applied in this study were primary and secondary sources. The primary source was the novel Falling Leaves itself and the secondary sources were books and articles. The applied theories in the analysis were the theory of character and characterization, which was applied for the first problem, theory of patriarchal culture, which was applied for the second problem, and theory of feminism, which was applied for the third problem.

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ABSTRAK

Aninditya Putri Arumsari. The Responses of Chinese Women toward the Practice of Patriarchal Culture as Seen through Adeline Yen Mah’s Falling Leaves. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2011.

Dalam skripsi ini penulis menganalisa sebuah novel karangan Adeline Yen Mah berjudul Falling Leaves. Novel tersebut menggambarkan kebudayaan patriarki yang diadaptasi oleh komunitas Cina. Novel ini menyatakan bahwa kaum wanita di Cina dianggap tidak berarti dan mereka harus tunduk pada kekuasaan kaum lelaki di keluarga mereka. Falling Leaves dengan jelas mendeskripsikan tentang rintangan-rintangan yang kaum wanita harus hadapi sebagai korban dari praktek budaya patriarki di keluarga mereka.

Terdapat tiga rumusan masalah dalam skripsi ini. Rumusan masalah pertama tentang bagaimana tokoh-tokoh wanita dideskripsikan dalam novel. Rumusan masalah kedua tentang bagaimana praktek kebudayaan patriarki yang dialami tokoh-tokoh wanita dan rumusan masalah ketiga tentang bagaimana tanggapan tokoh-tokoh wanita dalam novel terhadap praktek kebudayaan patriarki di keluarga mereka. Dalam skripsi ini, penulis memfokuskan penjelasan terhadap lima tokoh perempuan; Adeline, Aunt Baba, Grand Aunt, Grandmother, dan Lydia.

Metode yang digunakan dalam skripsi ini adalah metode studi pustaka. Sumber-sumber yang dipakai dalam skripsi ini terdiri dari sumber utama dan sumber kedua. Sumber pertama adalah novel Falling Leaves sendiri, dan sumber kedua adalah buku dan artikel. Teori-teori yang digunakan dalam analisis adalah teori karater dan karakterisasi, yang digunakan untuk rumusan masalah pertama, teori kebudayaan patriarki, yang digunakan untuk rumusan masalah kedua, dan teori feminisme, yang digunakan untuk rumusan masalah ketiga.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Located in Southeast Asia along the coastline of the Pacific Ocean, China is the world’s forth largest country after Russia, Canada, and the US. The population in China is around 1.3 billion people. One of China’s greatest treasures is her long, rich history. China is also famous as a country which has many cultures, and Chinese literature testifies to the country’s rich heritage. Falling Leaves is one example of Chinese literature written by Adeline Yen Mah. In this novel Yen Mah cleverly retells about Chinese history and culture while telling her true story. In the story Yen Mah tells about her life under the practices of patriarchal culture in her family. In this thesis, patriarchy in Chinese family will be further analyzed in order to get a clear picture of patriarchal culture experienced by Adeline and other female characters in Falling Leaves.

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patriarchy in a materialist context. “They argue that the capitalist mode of production is structured by a patriarchal sexual division of labor” (1995:201). For example, Heidi Hartmann defines patriarchy as a set of social relations with a material base operating on a system of male hierarchical relations and male solidarity (1995:201). She denies that patriarchy is universal and unchanging and claims that its intensity changes over time. Mary Daly argues that patriarchy is itself the prevailing religion of the entire planet. It means that patriarchy does not happen periodically but permanently (1995:201).

Although there are many different arguments about patriarchy whether patriarchy can change over time or permanent, experts still define it as a system which makes men in a favorable position because men have authority to control women.

China is a country which has a strong patriarchal culture, especially in the family. According to Lloyd E. Eastman in his book entitled Family, Field, and Ancestors, there is a Confucian ideal of womanhood repeated constantly over the centuries:

To be humble, yielding, respectful, and reverential; to put herself after others, these qualities are those exemplifying woman’s low and humble estate. To retire late and rise early; not to shirk exertion from dawn to dark, this is called being diligent. To behave properly and decorously in serving her husband; to be serene and self-possessed, shunning jests and laughter, this is called being worthy of continuing the husband’s lineage. If a woman possesses the above-mentioned three qualities, then her reputation shall be excellent (1988:19).

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In Chinese family, the birth of the daughter is considered less important than the birth of the son. The parents only expect to have one daughter to take care of their future sons one day. “Most families probably hope that one – but no more than one – of their children would be a girl” (Eastman, 1988:21). Besides, most parents do not let their daughter to get proper education because it may be dangerous for the future of young girl’s marriage, as stated in an article entitled “Women in Chinese Culture” by Jenkins: “It was considered unwise to educate women, supporting the belief that ‘in a woman stupidity is a virtue’” <http://www.kwintessential.co.uk>. Instead of giving them a proper education, parents only teach their daughter how to write and read. This is the idea of patriarchy that has been invested by parents to their daughter.

In the Chinese family, a daughter is forced to bind her feet. This custom is called footbinding. Footbinding is a custom beginning around 970 A.D. Footbinding is a custom that requires young girls to tightly wrap their feet in bandages so that their feet will stay at desired 4 inches. According to historical accounts, there is a story about why the custom of footbinding begins. The story is stated in the article entitled “History of Footbinding”, by Sadler:

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is forced to bind her feet by her mother in hope that one day there will be a good man to pick her as a wife. At that time no men will marry an unbound feet woman because men really adore a bound feet woman. In their opinion, small feet can bring sexual pleasure to them. This custom is created to please man so that this custom is included as a patriarchal culture, besides, the existence of this custom restricts women in all aspects of their life, such as their social life, education, and work, because most women with bound feet cripple as the effect of footbinding so that they can not walk easily and all they can do is to stay at home (Eastman, 1988:24). Footbinding is a cruel custom which portrays the patriarchal culture practiced by Chinese family and the most ironic thing that girls are forced to bind their feet by their mothers who raise them with patriarchal thought.

The writer realizes that the topic is worth to study, especially for someone or whoever wanting to learn about patriarchal culture, especially in Chinese society. This thesis includes the explanation about feminist awareness that some characters have in the novel and how their responses against patriarchal culture which makes them suffer, although there are some characters that react otherwise; they just follow the rules as a victim of patriarchal culture and do not make any movement to make a better life.

B. Problem Formulation

1. How are the female characters described in the novel?

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3. How are the responses of the female characters toward the practices of patriarchal culture in their family described?

C. Objectives of the Study

This study is aimed to learn about the female characters in Falling Leaves who experience many difficulties in their life under the practices of patriarchal culture in their family. The first objective is to describe the female characters in order to have a clearer and deeper understanding about them and their significant roles in the novel. Furthermore, the description of the female characters will help to reveal about the practices of patriarchal culture that existed in Chinese families. The second objective is to describe about the practices of patriarchal culture and explain about the difficult life of female characters under the patriarchal culture practiced by their family. The third objective is to find out the response of each female character in the novel; about how they react under patriarchal culture in their family, whether they approve or against it.

D. Definition of Terms

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1. Patriarchy

According to Maggie Humm, in her book entitled The Dictionary of Feminist Theory, patriarchy is “a system of social relations in which the class ‘men’ have power over the class ‘women’ because women are sexually devalued” (1995:200).

2. Culture

According to R. Linton, in his book entitled The Cultural Background of Personality, culture is “a configuration of learned behaviors and results of behavior whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of particular society” (1945:32).

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

This chapter consists of three basic points. The first point is the review on related studies, including the comment done by the people, conducted for or related to the works of Adeline Yen Mah. In the first point, the writer also provides some studies on the topics of patriarchal family and footbinding which are done by some experts. The second point is the review on related theories, describing the theories which are used to this study. There are three theories to be discussed in this study; theory of character and characterization, theory of patriarchal culture, and theory of feminism. The last point is the theoretical framework.

A. Review of Related Studies

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praises Adeline Yen Mah who can write such an amazing autobiographical novel and present the Chinese cultures and history all at once.

If you want something inspirational to read, this is a good book to start with. Not only is it autobiographical, but it also gives insight into Chinese culture, history (highlights many of the historical events that spans China from 1930’s to 1998), and even a bit of how the family business is run. This should be a must read for Asian American Studies

<http://cambreenotes.com/book-review-falling-leaves-by-adeline-yen-mah/>.

Oliver considers Falling Leaves as an inspirational novel to read because besides telling a story, Yen Mah also gives insight into Chinese culture and history; including the historical events that happen in China, for the examples are the Japanese occupation in China and the Revolution in China around 1949, so that this novel is helpful for someone who will make a research on Asian American Studies.

Besides the criticism that is given by a reader, the writer also provides some studies on the topic of patriarchal family and footbinding. The study on the topic of patriarchal family is done by Sharon Wesoky, in her study entitled “Women in Patriarchal Society”. Wesoky states that in a patriarchal family a wife and children are bent down to the power of husband or father. Father has a power to control everything. Wife and children must obey all the decisions that a father has made.

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women<http://historyworld.org/Civilization,20womeninpatriarchalsocietie s.htm>.

In the patriarchal family, women’s position is inferior to men’s position. Women are expected to obey and serve her husband. Men can have a wife or more, and if their wives can not bear any son to the family, concubines will be brought up into the family in hope that they can bear many sons. Otherwise, a wife is expected to be very loyal to her husband and a woman will be punished if she has an affair with another man. Men think that the way to prevent their wives from having an affair with other men is to isolate their wives in the house. These tragic situations portray how a patriarchal family looks like.

Another study is done by Lloyd E. Eastman in his book entitled Family, Field, and Ancestors. He analyzes footbinding as a custom appeared in the ancient China. Footbinding was a custom that existed in China for more than a thousand years. This custom began around 970 A.D. and banned since 1911 because this custom was a cruel custom that forced young girls to tightly wrap their feet in bandages so that their feet would stay at a desired 4 inches. “For girls, the most painful stage of the transition to adulthood began on the day that their mothers bound their feet” (1988:22). Eastman also analyzes that the effect of this practice to the girl’s body is crippling and she is isolated in the house because a girl with bound feet has difficulty to move and walk. “She had been crippled for life and was unable to move unaided far beyond the household walls” (1988:23).

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order to see the impact of patriarchal system to the female characters in Falling Leaves. This thesis also analyzes about a cruel custom of footbinding as a form of patriarchal culture in Chinese family. Although this thesis develops the studies above, this thesis still differs in some ways. This thesis is different from the study about patriarchal family, because in her study, Sharon Wesoky focuses on the impact of patriarchal family only on women whereas this study is also focus on the impact of patriarchal family on women and children, especially daughters. This study also reviews the work of Adeline Yen Mah’s Falling Leaves, using feminist point of view. This thesis tries to comprehend the feminist idea found in some female characters through their attitudes and behaviors. Since the foundation of this thesis is feminism, it can be said that this analysis is called feminist criticism.

B. Review of Related Theories

Basically, theories are needed as a tool to analyze the work or to become a basic thought of the analysis. There will be three theories to be discussed in this study. The first theory reviewed is theory of character and characterization. The second is theory of patriarchal culture, and the third is theory of feminism.

1. Theory of Character and Characterization

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person inside a literary works as the characters. Character is one of the most important elements in a work of literature. Abrams (1993:23) states that

Character is the person presented in a dramatic or narrative work, who are interpreted by the reader as being endowed with moral, dispositional and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say - the dialogue and by what they do - the action.

From the quotation above, Abrams tries to explain that character is the element in the literary works that gives information about the people who are included in that literary works. For the example is Adeline, the character of Falling Leaves. Character is an important element in the literary works because without characters, the story cannot be made.

When talking about character, we can not separate it from characterization. Murphy, in his Understanding Unseens: An introduction to English Poetry and the English Novel for overseas Students, shows nine ways of presenting the characters in a literary works (1972:171):

a. Personal description

The author gives a description on a person’s appearance and clothes. The readers are given the details about the appearance of the characters. For example parts of the body, skin color, hair, and the clothes he or she wears.

b. Character as seen by another

The author gives a description about the characters through the opinions, comments, views, and attitudes of other characters. The readers can get a reflected image of the character.

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The author can describe a character by giving readers an insight into the characteristics through the way he or she speaks and the language he or she uses. The readers can learn about the characters from the sentences that are used by the characters.

d. Past life

The author can provide a clue to events that help to shape characteristics by giving the reader the character’s past life. It enables the readers to analyze the motives that the characters have when he or she has particular characteristics or does something special.

e. Conversation of others.

The author can provide a clue about characters through the conversation of other people and what they say about the characters. The readers will learn that what others say about a character may reveal what kind of characters he or she is. f. Reactions

The author can describe characteristics by showing how the responses of a character toward various situations and events. The reaction may give a clue to what characteristics a character has.

g. Direct comment

The author directly describes and gives comments on the characters. This is the easiest way for the reader to understand about characteristics of a person because the reader will know what exactly the author wants to reveal.

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The author can give the direct knowledge to the readers of what a person is thinking about. Such thing cannot be seen but can be represented through the character’s speech and attitudes.

i. Mannerism

The author can characterize a character through the mannerisms, habits, or idiosyncrasies

2. Theory of Patriarchal Culture

Maggie Humm, in her book entitled The Dictionary of Feminist Theory, defines patriarchy as: “a system of social relations in which the class ‘men’ have power over the class ‘women’ because women are sexually devalued” (1995:200). Based on the quotation above, Maggie Humm equates patriarchy with male domination in which the men have power to control women because women are considered as the inferior one.

Patriarchy is a culture practiced by Chinese Families. According to Lloyd E. Eastman in Family, Field, and Ancestors, the traditional Chinese family is:

Conventionally defined as an economic unit composed of persons who are related by blood, marriage, or adoption and who partake of common property and a common purse. The family was, however, a protean institution, assuming diverse shapes, sizes, and generational depth – ranging from two persons of the same generation to fifty or more persons from four or five generations (1988:15).

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family budget with their unmarried children, with two or more married sons and their sons’ wives and children, and possibly with their grandsons’ wives and children. The third is the stem family, in which the parents, unmarried children, one married son, and the son’s wife and children live in one household (1988:16).

In Chinese family who adopt the patriarchal culture, father/husband is the one who controls everything in the house. That is why patriarchy can be said as male domination because father/husband is the one who has the absolute authority in the house. Sharon Wesoky, in her article entitled “Women in Patriarchal Society” explains about patriarchal culture in the family.

Families with patriarchal basis are the families with the husband and father determining fundamental conditions and making the key decision, and women, with humble obedience owed to this male authority <http://historyworld.org/Civilization,20womeninpatriarchalsocieties.htm>. According to Hawk’s statement above, living under the patriarchal family means that living under the father/husband’s authority. All his decision must be obeyed by his wife and children. For sons, living under patriarchal family is not really difficult because although they have to follow their father’s rules, they still have privileges because they are the expected children, not like the daughters whose presence are considered as bad luck and can bring so many burdens to the parents (Eastman, 2000:20). In the next quotation, Eastman mentions some conditions that may happen to a daughter in Chinese family:

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a doctor, or beseeching the protection of the gods, longer than if boys became sick (2000:21).

The quotation above describes the unfair treatment between sons and daughters in patriarchal family in Chinese society. The sons in their school age can enjoy education and they may have a bright future. Otherwise, daughters enjoy little education and in their teenage most of them are forced to enter an arranged marriage by their parents.

In the Chinese society, there is Confucian (based on or believing the teachings of the Chinese philosopher) about the ideal of womanhood. In his book, Eastman states the Confucian ideal of womanhood, repeated constantly over the centuries:

The quotation above describes that a woman must be humble and obedient to the husband after the marriage. Women must be very diligent to do the domestic jobs and they have to serve their husband. The quotation above indicates that woman is considered inferior to men because she has to serve the husband and bend down to the husband’s authority.

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For the example, the parents are the one who choose the future spouse for their children. The groom or the bride may not be in love but they have to marry for the sake of their family. Eastman states that:

Marriage in China was regarded as a family matter – by the family and for the family. The social and economic status of the bride’s family also entered into the groom’s parents’ decision. The status of the girl’s family should be high, but not too high. Marriage is a bond between two surnames, and each family recognized that an advantageous marriage could enhance its reputation and provide innumerable economic and political benefits. If the bride’s family status was too lofty, entertaining her parents (as was occasionally necessary) could be embarrassing and excessively costly; if its status was too low, the in-laws’ requests for loans and favors could be a nuisance (1988:24).

Based on the quotation above, it can be concluded that in Chinese family, marriage is arranged by the parents. The point that becomes the consideration for the parents choosing the spouse for their children is the status of the future spouse. The future spouse must also have the high status to be accepted by the parents. Furthermore, Eastman states about women’s position in their new family after the marriage:

For the groom’s family, the primary goal was to acquire a woman who, with the groom, could produce male offspring in order to perpetuate the family line. It was desirable, too, that she be temperamentally suited to the work and situation of her new family. A girl who was lazy or who had a foul temper could be a curse on the family forever; if she was sickly, she could be a burden; if she was too attractive, she might have extramarital love affair that would sully the family reputation (1988:24).

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bear many sons to continue the family line. Eastman adds in his book that marriage is done to fulfill the goals of familism. The goals are to produce male heirs, to get a woman who can help doing the housework and also to take care of the parents-in-law in their old years:

Marriage was simply not regarded as a means of enhancing the personal pleasure or happiness of the newly married couple. Instead, it was a means of promoting the goals of familism. Its purpose were to perpetuate the family by producing male heirs and to acquire a young woman who would ease the burden of work in the kitchen and assist in caring for her parents-in-law during their declining years (1988:25).

The quotation above indicates that the marriage is done for the sake of the family and not to obtain the happiness between the groom and the bride.

Another form of the patriarchal culture practiced by Chinese family is the practice of footbinding. Footbinding is a custom that requires young girls to tightly wrap their feet in bandages so that their feet will stay at a desired 4 inches. This custom is called footbinding. Footbinding is a custom began around 970 A.D. Lloyd E. Eastman in his book entitled Family, Fields, and Ancestors states about the history of the practice of footbinding. He states that the custom of footbinding at first spreads among the ladies of the court who want to imitate the dancers in the palace by compressing their feet. Then in the period during the Yuan Dynasty, the custom of footbinding begins to spread to the common classes:

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Eastman then adds that women who do not bind their feet are considered from the lowest class like has been stated in his book: “Those who retained their natural feet were usually from the lowest classes or were members of certain ethnic and cultural minorities” (1988:23). From the quotation stated by Eastman above we can conclude that the custom of footbinding originally comes from the upper class or the higher social status. Considering the fact that the practice of footbinding originally comes from the upper class, many families in China then begin to force their daughter and bind their feet. From that time a bound feet woman becomes a symbol of family’s wealth and high status in the society.

The practice of footbinding is actually included as the form of patriarchal culture because the purpose of this custom is to please the man. According to Eastman, men really like the tiny feet of the bound feet women because it can bring sexual pleasure to them. For them, tiny feet can fire up their imagination the same like women’s sexual organs did:

Men waxed rhapsodic over the beauty of the embroidered small shoes worn by women with bound feet; they were sexually aroused by the foot-bound woman’s swaying walk and uplifted buttocks; and they dreamed of caressing those golden lotuses, which fired their imaginations no less than did the woman’s sexual organs (1988:23).

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therefore, did not easily find quality husbands” (1988:24). The statement of Eastman above also becomes the reason why most family in China forced their daughter to bind their feet because parents worry if their daughter can not find a husband since most men only want to marry bound feet women.

3. Theory of Feminism

According to Guerin in his book entitled A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature, the goal of feminism is:

To change this degrading view of women so that all women will realize that they are not a ‘non significant other’ but that each woman is a valuable person possessing the same privileges and rights as every man (2004:180).

Actually women must have the same opportunities as men in all aspects of their life because like men, women are also capable to be involved in political or economic activities like has been stated by Firestone in The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution: “Feminism is a political, cultural or economic movement aimed at establishing more rights and legal protection for women” (1970:46).

The feminist movement also emphasizes the idea that women have been ‘forced’ to be almost entirely dependent on men in so many aspects of life. The goal of liberating women from their dependence to men has been one of the most important foundations of feminist movements around the world.

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be rendered invisible and silent like has been stated by Deborah L. Madsen in her book entitled Feminist Theory and Literary Practice:

The opposition between rational (male) and emotional (female), nature (female), and civilization (male) – which position woman as the defining opposite or ‘other’ of man. Women are defined as ‘other’ or they are ignored, rendered invisible and silent, if they do not fit the patriarchal scheme. Outside the dominant definitions of male – dominated culture women exist only as insane, inarticulate or irrelevant (2000:18).

Feminist theory and criticism have opposed these unfair treatments continuously by insisting that women are actually having freedom to speak up their minds and women are also having the same rights as men to make a better life.

C. Theoretical Framework

This part explains the contribution of the theories and reviews in solving the problems of the study. Theories are needed as the basic idea or concept to answer the problems formulated in previous chapter. Theory of character and characterization are used to analyze the first problem. Those theories are suitable because this study focuses on the responses given by female characters in Falling Leaves, and their characterization become the most important point to be analyzed in order to compare the responses given by them. Theories of characters and characterization are needed to understand deeper about the character and to analyze what kind of traits the character has.

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theory helps to analyze every situation experienced by female characters in Falling Leaves in order to see the impact of patriarchal culture into the life of female characters.

The third theory that the writer uses to answer the third problem is theory of feminism. Theory of feminism helps the writer to see how female characters perceive feminist ideas, through examining her actions and experiences.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter consists of three major points. The first point is object of the study that will describe about the literary work, Falling Leaves, as the main object to study in this thesis. The second point is approach of the study that will explain about the approach that is used to analyze the work and also the reason of using it. The last point is method of the study that will describe the procedure of analyzing the work.

A. Object of the Study

The object of this study is the novel entitled Falling Leaves, an autobiography of a famous Chinese female writer, Adeline Yen Mah. Falling Leaves was first published in 1997. This novel was written by Adeline Yen Mah in her free time when she studied abroad to learn about medicine. Falling Leaves was sold over one million copies worldwide, prompting Mah to quit medicine and devoted her time to write. There are many interesting aspects that can be learned from this novel; family relationship, feminism values, historic events which happened during the life of Adeline Yen Mah and also the culture in China.

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second wife. The children called her Niang. Niang was a cruel person and she always made Adeline suffer. Adeline was mentally and physically abused by Niang. Niang even convinced her husband that Adeline was a bad daughter. Adeline could not stand her life under Niang’s pressure. She had a dream that one day she could be free from her family. One day a fortune came to her when she won a writing competition, then she begged her father to allow her to study abroad like her brothers. Luckily, her father allowed her to study abroad. Adeline began to reach her dream. She studied hard and she succeeded in her college. Then she worked as a physician. Her first marriage was a mess because she married a man who did not respect her. Adeline’s relationship with her family was still bad, especially with Niang and Lydia, her elder sister who betrayed her. The only strength came from Aunt Baba, the person who really loved Adeline. Adeline finally found her happiness after she married for the second time with a gentle man named Bob.

B. Approach of the Study

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According to McManus in Classics and Feminism: Gendering the Classics, feminist approach is:

An approach that the major purpose is to revise our way of considering history, society, literature, etc. so that neither male nor female is taken as normative, but both are seen as equally conditioned by the gender constructions (1997:58).

In other words, the purpose of feminist approach is to change the idea that women are unequal as men but both are seen as equal. Some female characters in Falling Leaves, with their feminist awareness try to show their family that they want the same freedom like men in the family who can work and reach their dream instead of enter an arranged marriage. Some of them even get the equalities with men in their family because of their achievement in their job.

Since the study focuses on analyzing the responses given by female characters toward the practice of patriarchal system, the writer uses feminist approach in this study. Feminist approach is the most suitable one to apply in this study to reveal the idea of feminism of some female characters in Falling Leaves.

C. Method of the Study

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The primary datum of the study was the novel Falling Leaves, by Adeline Yen Mah. The other data, called secondary data, which were also needed to support the research, were taken from books, articles, and also several websites related to the theories and the approach which were used to analyze the problems.

The first step taken in analyzing this literature work was to read the novel carefully. The second step taken was collecting the data, references, theories and studies related to the novel Falling Leaves. The third step taken in conducting this study was answering the problems in the problem formulation. This step was done by applying the theory of character and characterization in order to explain about the female characters in Falling Leaves. Then the theory of patriarchal culture was applied in order to describe about the practice of this system in Chinese family and the theory of feminism was applied in order to compare the responses given by female characters toward patriarchal culture in their family.

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26

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS

This chapter is to discuss the answers of the three problems formulated in this study. Regarding the fact that there are three problems formulated, therefore, this analysis is divided into three sub-chapters. The first sub-chapter is the analysis about the descriptions of female characters in Falling Leaves. The second sub-chapter gives the explanation about the practices of patriarchal cultures in every female character’s family. In this sub-chapter, the writer reveals about the difficult life of each female character under the patriarchal family. The third sub-chapter analyzes the responses of each female character toward the practices of patriarchal culture inside their family.

A. The Characterization of Female Characters

The people who are described in a literary work are called the characters. Character is one of the most important elements in a work of literature. Abrams states that character is:

The person presented in a dramatic or narrative work, who are interpreted by the reader as being endowed with moral, dispositional and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say - the dialogue and by what they do - the action (1993:23).

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without characters, the story cannot be made. In this sub-chapter, the writer will analyze five female characters inside Falling Leaves; they are Adeline, Aunt Baba, Grand Aunt, Grandmother and Lydia.

1. Adeline

Adeline Yen Mah is both the major character and the author of Falling Leaves. Adeline is the youngest child of a very wealthy father, Joseph Tsi-Rung and a vivacious mother, Ren. Unfortunately, Adeline’s mother died two weeks after Adeline’s birth. Then, she is considered as bad luck in her family. She is also considered as the insignificant one. “I was considered inferior and insignificant, partly because of the bad luck I had brought about by causing the death of my mother” (Yen Mah, 1997:36). Adeline is treated badly by her siblings, and things become much worsen when her father marries for the second time with an Eurasian woman. Adeline and her siblings call their step mother Niang.

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Adeline is also talented on literature. In her high school in The Sacred Heart Convent School, Adeline wins the writing competition. She reads the announcement of the writing competition in one journal in the library. The writing competition opens to all English – speaking children aged between ten and nineteen. Adeline begins to write a play entitled Gone with the Locusts and send it. Some months later, there is the announcement in the newspaper that Adeline has won the competition. “At last, my luck had changed. I did not know it, but I had been nominated first-prize winner of the play-writing competition I had entered seven months earlier” (Yen Mah, 1997:115). This is the proof that even in the young age Adeline is already talented on literature.

Adeline is very enthusiastic to study and to continue her education. She

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literary work. One of them is by considering the reaction given by the character. The author can describe the characteristics of a certain character by showing how the responses of a character toward various situations and events. The reaction may give a clue to what characteristics a character has (1972:171). By examining at the response given by Adeline above, the writer can conclude that one of Adeline’s characteristic is her great enthusiasm to study because she writes many letters to her parents begging them to let her study abroad. Adeline also has a dream that one day she can escape from Hong Kong and her family, and she can study abroad. She shares her dream with her friend in her dormitory named Mary. “Mary and I began to make plans to escape from Hong Kong and live in college hostels somewhere far way: London, Tokyo or Paris” (Yen Mah, 1997:113). These are the proofs that Adeline really has great enthusiasm to continue her education although there are many obstacles that Adeline must face to reach her dream.

2. Aunt Baba

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keeps her promise to take care of Adeline. She becomes really close to Adeline and she loves Adeline very much. Aunt Baba always thinks that Adeline is like her own daughter.

According to Adeline, Aunt Baba is a gentle woman. Aunt Baba is very kind to Adeline and she is the person who takes care of Adeline. In Yen family, Aunt Baba is the only one who really cares about Adeline’s education and she always encourages Adeline to do her best in school. Adeline’s father and her step mother even do not care about Adeline at all. Because of that, for Adeline, Aunt Baba is like her real mother. The closeness between them is stated in the novel:

Aunt Baba was always like a mother to me. Now we drew even closer. She paid the greatest attention to everything about me: my appearance, my health and my personality. Most of all, she cared about my education, probably mindful of the fact that her own had been curtailed. She checked my homework every evening (Yen Mah, 1997:60).

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3. Grand Aunt

Grand Aunt was born in Shanghai in 1886 during the Qing dynasty. Grand Aunt is the youngest child of the family and she is eight years younger than Ye Ye, Adeline’s grandfather. Grand Aunt is an amazing figure for Adeline because Grand Aunt is the first daughter in Yen family who gets equality with men in her family. Grand Aunt refuses when her mother bound her feet and she is the first daughter who gets foreign education. After she graduates from high school she works hard in the Bank of Shanghai and finally she owns her bank called Shanghai Women’s Bank.

Grand Aunt is a rebellious child. At the age of three, she is forced to bind her feet, but Grand Aunt refuses it and she tears the bandages that are used to bind her feet. “At the age of three my grand aunt proclaimed her independence by categorically refusing to have her feet bound, resolutely tearing off the bandages as fast as they were applied” (Yen Mah, 1997:5). Grand Aunt even refuses to eat and drink in order to get her feet free. This quotation indicates that even in a very young age Grand Aunt wants her own freedom and in order to get it she becomes a rebellious child.

Grand Aunt is also a courageous person. Her courage is proven when she owns her Shanghai Women’s Bank:

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The quotation above explains that in the Chinese society in the early 19th century, women are considered incapable to manage any kind of business. Because of that when Grand Aunt opens her own bank many people think that it is ridiculous. But although Grand Aunt is being scoffed at and she is considered incapable to manage her own business, she still has courage to continue her business. Murphy, in his Understanding Unseens: An introduction to English Poetry and the English Novel for overseas Students, shows nine ways of presenting the characters in a literary work. One of them is by considering the reaction given by the character. The author can describe the characteristics of a certain character by showing how the responses of a character toward various situations and events. The reaction may give a clue to what characteristics a character has (1972:171). Grand Aunt, after she is being scoffed at by people because she is considered incapable of owning her business, she still does her job properly. She does not let herself to be intimidated by what other people say to her. By looking at the response that is given by Grand Aunt, the writer can conclude that her characteristic is courageous. Grand Aunt still has courage to continue her business although many people ridicule her action but in the end Grand Aunt can manage her bank successfully.

4. Grandmother

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(Ye Ye, Adeline’s grandfather) for the first time. People say that the marriage is an ideal marriage because both Grandmother and Ye Ye come from a rich family.

Grandmother is an obedient woman. In her life, she obeys what her parents demand her to do. At first she obeys her parents when they force Grandmother to bind her feet like has been stated in the novel:

At the age of three, Grandmother’s feet had been wrapped tightly with a long, narrow cloth bandage, forcing the four lateral toes under the soles so that only the big toe protruded. This bandage was tightened daily for a number of years, squeezing the toes painfully inwards and permanently arresting the foot’s growth in order to achieve the tiny feet so prized by Chinese men (Yen Mah, 1997:11).

The quotation above is the proof that Grandmother is an obedient person because she does not rebel when her feet are bound. In China, a bound feet woman indicates that she comes from a rich family like has been stated in the novel: “Women were in effect crippled and their inability to walk with ease was a symbol both of their subservience and of their family’s wealth” (Yen Mah, 1997: 11). Therefore, Grandmother who comes from a rich family is demanded to bind her feet in her young age.

In the age of fifteen, Grandmother obeys her parents to enter an arranged marriage like has been stated in the novel:

Next day, the trembling bride, bedecked in a red silk gown and her face covered with a red silk cloth, was borne into the home of her parents-in-law in a red and gold sedan chair painted with a phoenix and dragon, rented from a store specializing in weddings and funerals (Yen Mah, 1997:10).

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before. But although she is so scared she still obeys her parents to marry a man that she does not know.

Besides Grandmother’s personality that is obedient, she is also a loving mother with great sacrifice. She remembers her bad experience when her feet are bound. She feels so much pain because of her feet as stated in the novel: “Grandmother’s feet caused her pain throughout her life.” (Yen Mah, 1997:11). Therefore, she does not adopt the custom of footbinding to her daughter. She even does not care about the scoffs from people outside her family about why she has an unbound feet daughter. At that time it is a strange if a girl’s feet are not bound. Besides, a bound feet woman symbolizes family’s wealth and high status so that people ridicule her action. But Grandmother insists on refusing the custom of footbinding to her daughter although her action is being ridiculed by other people.

5. Lydia

Lydia is Adeline elder sister. Her left arm deform due to the birth process. During the birth process, the doctor applies forceps to take the baby because the baby is too large. From that time, Lydia’s left arm become partially paralyzed. The relationship between Adeline and Lydia is not really close because Adeline is six and a half years younger than Lydia so that Adeline thinks that they can not understand each other. “Between us there were three brothers and a gap of six and a half years. We were a world apart” (Yen Mah, 1997:34).

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kind to Adeline because she wants Adeline to help her son to enroll him to a college. But, the night after the death of their father, Lydia spends a night together with Adeline and she begins to blame Adeline for the fate of Lydia’s daughter. Lydia says that Adeline is very bad because she only helps Lydia’s son and not both her son and daughter.

She began by blaming me for not helping her daughter, Tai-ling. I was miserly and should have given Tai-ling the same amount of money that I had given to way. ‘Besides,’ she added coldly, ‘you only helped Tai-way because he’s young and handsome’ (Yen Mah, 1997:238).

The conversation above is the proof that Lydia is a tricky person. She is kind to Adeline when she needs her but then she blames Adeline for unreasonable thing. In fact Adeline is very helpful to Lydia but she becomes selfish and does not satisfy with Adeline’s help. Murphy, in his Understanding Unseens: An introduction to English Poetry and the English Novel for overseas Students, shows nine ways of presenting the characters in a literary work. One of them is by looking at the character’s mannerism. The author can characterize a character through the mannerisms, habits, or idiosyncrasies (1972:171). By looking at Lydia’s mannerism, the writer can conclude that Lydia is a tricky person.

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According to Lydia, Niang practically forced her to marry Samuel by reminding her that Father had seven children to support and she was the oldest. Since it would be difficult to get a job with her crippled left arm, there was no point in wasting money on a college education (Yen Mah, 1997:79).

At first Lydia shows her objection toward the arrange marriage by asking help from her Aunt and Grandfather, but at last Lydia gives up and agrees to marry Samuel. Lydia’s decision to give up is the proof that she is not courageous. At that time she really trusts her father. She thinks that her father surely knows the best thing for her future. But when she knows that her three younger brothers and even Adeline study abroad, she feels that she is wrong and so stupid to enter an arranged marriage.

At the age of seventeen, I was naïve and puerile and trusted Father entirely, thinking that his decisions must be best for my future. Only later when he sent all my brothers to England to study did I realize that I had been a fool (Yen Mah: 1997:78).

The quotation above is the proof that Lydia regrets her decision to obey her parents to marry in the young age.

B. The Practices of Patriarchal Culture in Chinese Family

Patriarchy is a culture practiced by Yen’s family. Sharon Wesoky, in her article entitled “Women in Patriarchal Society” states about the patriarchal family:

Families with patriarchal basis are the families with the husband and father determining fundamental conditions and making the key decision, and women, with humble obedience owed to this male authority<http://history-world.org/Civilization,20women_in_patriarchal_societies.htm>.

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children must obey all the decisions that their father has made although the decisions are not similar to the children’s wishes. Inside a patriarchal family, the daughters become the ones who suffer more than the sons. It is because in Chinese family, daughters are considered unimportant. Most families in China expect that their children are sons. They expect to have only a daughter so that she can take care of her brothers then (Eastman, 2000:20). If a daughter is born, she can only enjoy little education and in her teenage she can be thrown into an arranged marriage. On the contrary, the son can enroll into a university and they can work and as the result, they can have a brighter future (Eastman, 2000:21).

The one who is suffered as the victim of the practices of patriarchal family is not only the daughters but also the wife because in this kind of family, the relation between husband and wife is not equal. After the marriage, women have to live in the groom’s household. Women are expected to serve her husband and her in laws. A wife must have a good behavior and the family must become their priority. They are expected to diligently do the domestic jobs in the household. In other words, for the groom’s family, a wife is considered as insignificant and inferior.

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1. Adeline

Adeline experiences the practice of patriarchal culture in her first marriage with a man named Byron. It is two weeks after their marriage when Adeline begins to realize all the lies that Byron has made. Byron lies about the place where he works. Adeline wants to hear the truth from her husband so that she asks him about the reason why he is telling lies. Byron’s harsh reaction surprises Adeline. He does not want to discuss anything: “No! I want you to understand that when I say no I mean no. There’s nothing further to discuss” (Yen Mah, 1997:161). The quotation above shows that Adeline is not respected by Byron. In a patriarchal family, wives are considered as the inferior one, because husbands position themselves as the most dominant person in the house so that they do not think that they must respect their wives. Since men position themselves as the most dominant person in the family, they feel free to dictate their wives. The novel also states that Adeline is demanded to follow all of Byron’s rules: “Marry a chicken, follow a chicken; marry a dog follow a dog” (Yen Mah, 1997: 161). The quotation above indicates that Adeline is dictated to follow all of her husband’s rules. This is the idea of patriarchal culture where a husband, as a man holds power to control everything in the house, so that Adeline, as a wife is demanded to obey her husband, Byron and follows all of his rules in the household. Adeline then is demanded not to protest against her husband’s lies.

In the marriage, Adeline becomes the victim of violation. Adeline and even her child are often violated by Byron.

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about my black eyes and bruised face to my colleagues (Yen Mah, 1997:170).

The quotation above portrays the fate that women face living with a husband who has a patriarchal thought. Besides being disrespected, woman can be mistreated by her husband like has been experienced by Adeline. Mrs. Hsu, the maid in the Adeline’s house states that most Chinese men often mistreat their wives.

There are lots of men like your husband in China. Men routinely mistreated their wives. Now he’s doing the same to you. The more you put up with it, the more savage he will be (Yen Mah, 1997:169).

Day by day, Adeline feels that Byron’s bad tempered is worsen. He can be angry even by little things which are not suitable with his wishes, and Adeline is mistreated even more. Adeline can not stand her condition as the victim of women’s violence. Adeline finally loses her patience and in 1971 she divorces Byron.

2. Aunt Baba

During her life, Aunt Baba experiences the bitter life as the victim of her patriarchal family. In the family, she is the one who has to press her own desire for many times to fulfill her family’s desires. She has to release her education, her job, and finally her future because of her family’s egoistic.

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Aunt Baba was told to drop out of school because advanced education was considered detrimental to the marriage prospects of young girls. Confucius had professed that only ignorant women were virtuous (Yen Mah, 1997:14).

The quotation above explains the reason why Aunt Baba has to drop out from the school. Women at that time seem do not have any option for their future except for marriage, so that most daughters in the Chinese family are told not to think about education because in their teenage they are finally thrown into an arranged marriage. In Chinese society, there is Confucian (based on or believing the teachings of the Chinese philosopher) about the ideal of womanhood like has been stated in the quotation above. Confucius states that virtuous women are the ones who are stupid and ignorant. The Confucius somehow influences the way people think and because of the belief, parents think that they do not have to enroll their daughter to any school. Instead, parents demand their daughters to enter an arranged marriage in their teenage. Eastman, in his book entitled Family, Field, and Ancestors, states the Confucian ideal of womanhood, repeated constantly over the centuries:

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their first priority. Aunt Baba always presses her desires in order to fulfill her family’s desires.

Aunt Baba once again has to press her desire to work because of her younger brother, Joseph (Adeline’s father). He wants Aunt Baba to quit from her job in order to take care of the household:

After my mother’s death, Grandmother and Father persuaded Aunt Baba to resign her job at the Women’s Bank and stay on in Tianjin to take charge of the household (Yen Mah, 1997:25).

The quotation above reveals that Aunt Baba, as a woman, must serve her family and her obligation is to do the domestic jobs instead of working outside the house. According to Adeline, Aunt Baba is like a prisoner in her own family because she sacrifices her chance to work and even to have her own family:

An invisible silken handcuff was thus slipped around her willing wrists, evaporating her chances of marriage and a family of her own. In those days, women in China were expected to sublimate their own desires to the common good of the family. In return, the men felt honour-bound to protect and support them for the rest of their lives (Yen Mah, 1997:25). From the quotation above, Yen Mah states that women are expected to press their own desires for the good of the family and the men who have been helped will support them during their lives. It is the reason why Adeline’s father provides all the things which are needed by Aunt Baba. Adeline’s father also provides money for her to pay Aunt Baba’s kindness to help him taking care of his children. But although everything has been provided for Aunt Baba, she is still in the unfavorable position because her life is restricted in the house.

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Aunt Baba is still single. Yen Mah stated in the novel the fact about the marriage in China. A woman aged above thirty is considered unnecessary to marry. Otherwise, a man can marry a woman or more no matter how old he is:

The double standard accorded men and women determined that single girls not married off by the age of thirty often remained single for life, whereas a man was expected to take at least one wife, regardless of his age (Yen Mah, 1997:25).

The quotation above explains that women are considered as the least priority. The society focuses on the men who are considered as the superior one. The condition of the marriage stated by Yen Mah above is the proof that women are considered as the least priority.

3. Grand Aunt

During her life, Grand Aunt once experiences the practice of patriarchal culture in her family when her feet are bound in the age of three. The existence of footbinding is included as the practices of patriarchal culture because the purpose of this custom is to please men. Eastman, in his book entitled Family, Fields, and Ancestors, states some reasons about why men really like women with tiny feet. Men think that tiny feet can bring sexual excitement to them. For them, tiny feet can fire their imaginations the same like women’s sexual organs do:

Men waxed rhapsodic over the beauty of the embroidered small shoes worn by women with bound feet; they were sexually aroused by the foot-bound woman’s swaying walk and uplifted buttocks; and they dreamed of caressing those golden lotuses, which fired their imaginations no less than did the woman’s sexual organs (1988:23).

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pleasure to them, men think that small feet symbolizes the beauty and the well-behavior of women like has been stated by Eastman: “Small feet were not only objects of beauty, but also symbols of style, social class, and proper upbringing. Women with unbound feet, therefore, did not easily find quality husbands” (1988:24).

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During her life, Grand Aunt prefers not to marry. In the novel, Yen Mah states several reasons why Grand Aunt does not want to marry:

In those days, daughters could still be legally sold or bartered. A wife was often treated as an indentured servant in her husband’s household, especially to her mother-in-law. If she failed to bear a son, one or more concubines would be brought in. Remarriage for widowers was routine but considered unchaste for widows. Most men of mean routinely visited brothels but a woman who was unfaithful to her husband could be punished by death (Yen Mah, 1997:8)

The quotation above explains the unfair treatments between men and women. Women are expected to be loyal to their husband whereas men can have an affair with other women. Women are also expected to serve their husband and their in-laws in their husband’s household. These are the picture of women’s fate living under the patriarchal culture practiced by the family. Women are suffered by the fact that men are considered as more important than women.

4. Grandmother

Grandmother lives a miserable life during her childhood and her teenage because she always suffers from the practices of patriarchy in her family. In the age of three, she suffers from the practice of a custom called footbinding, and in the age of fifteen she suffers from an arranged marriage.

Footbinding is a custom began around 970 A.D. Footbinding is a custom that requires young girls to tightly wrap their feet in bandages so that their feet will stay at a desired 4 inches. Lloyd E. Eastman in his book entitled Family, Fields, and Ancestors states about the history of the practice of footbinding:

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dancers achieved artistic effect by lightly binding their feet. Admiration for small-footed women then spread among ladies of the court, who emulated the dancers by moderately compressing their feet. It was during the period of the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) – that the practice spread to the common classes (Eastman, 1988:22).

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In the age of fifteen, Grandmother enters an arranged marriage as demanded by her father. Her future husband is Ye Ye (Grand Aunt’s third elder brother). People say that their marriage is an ideal marriage because both of them come from a wealthy family. The Grandmother’s father owns a small herbal store across the street from Ye Ye’s father’s tea house. Eastman in his book also states a few facts about marriage in Chinese society:

Marriage in China was regarded as a family matter – by the family and for the family. The social and economic status of the bride’s family also entered into the groom’s parents’ decision. The status of the girl’s family should be high, but not too high. Marriage is a bond between two surnames, and each family recognized that an advantageous marriage could enhance its reputation and provide innumerable economic and political benefits. If the bride’s family status was too lofty, entertaining her parents (as was occasionally necessary) could be embarrassing and excessively costly; if its status was too low, the in-laws’ requests for loans and favors could be a nuisance (1988:24).

It can be said that marriage in China is arranged by the family and for the family because the one who decides the marriage is the family and not the groom or the bride. The groom or the bride may not be in love but they have to marry for the sake of their family. Eastman’s statement portrays the condition of Ye Ye and Grandmother’s marriage because their family is the one who decides the marriage and they marry to satisfy their family from the recognition of the high status in the society. Both Ye Ye and Grandmother come from rich family and it makes each family becomes rightfully proud.

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Tomorrow you will belong to the Yen family. From now on, this is no longer your home and you are not to contact us without permission from your husband. Your duty will be to please him and your in-laws. Bear them many sons. Sublimate your own desires. Become the willing piss-pot and spittoon of the Yens and we will be proud of you (Yen Mah, 1997:10).

From the quotation above we can see women’s position in the patriarchal family. Women are expected to obey their husband and to please their in-laws. They have to press their desires, and their priority is to serve their husband and their in-laws. Women’s position in their new family after the marriage is described by Eastman as follows:

For the groom’s family, the primary goal was to acquire a woman who, with the groom, could produce male offspring in order to perpetuate the family line. It was desirable, too, that she be temperamentally suited to the work and situation of her new family. A girl who was lazy or who had a foul temper could be a curse on the family forever; if she was sickly, she could be a burden; and if she was too attractive, she might have extramarital love affair that would sully the family reputation (1988:24). The quotation above gives explanation about women’s position after they marry. They are considered as a slave who has to do the domestic job in the household and they are also expected to bear many sons in order to continue the family line. Eastman explains that marriage is China is done to fulfill the goals of familism. Besides to produce male heirs, marriage is done to get a woman who can help doing the housework and also to take care of the parents-in-law in their old year (1988:25).

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Next day, the trembling bride, bedecked in a red silk gown and her face covered with a red silk cloth, was borne into the home of her parents-in-law in a red and gold sedan chair painted with a phoenix and dragon, rented from a store specializing in weddings and funerals (Yen Mah, 1997:11).

Luckily, Ye Ye is a gentle man. He is proven to be very affectionate to Grandmother, like has been stated in the novel: “The young bride’s fears were misplaced because Ye Ye proved to be loving and considerate” (Yen Mah, 1997:11). After the marriage, Grandmother and Ye Ye are growing to love each other.

5. Lydia