Teori Belajar
Krisna Yet
Apa itu teori
• Seperangkat kosep-konsep, definisi-definisi dan asumsi-asumsi yang tersusun secara
sistematis yang menjelaskan fenomena
Apa itu teori belajar
• Seperangkat kosep-konsep, definisi-definisi dan asumsi-asumsi yang tersusun secara
sistematis yang menjelaskan perolehan pengetahuan
Kelompok Teori Belajar
• Social
• Cognitive *)
• Adult
• Behavioral *)
• Constructivist
• *) yang dibahas
Cognitive
• Belajar melibatkan proses kognitif, antara stimulus dan respon
• Jika ada stimulus dicerna terlebih dahulu sebelum memberikan respon
• Peserta belajar menjadi aktif
Cognitive, lanj
• Teori Bloom, Kolb, Piaget merupakan teori yang menggunakan kognitive
• Bloom : dibahas dalam ranah Cognitive, affective dan psychomotor
Adult
• Pengertian : dilihat dari biologis (mukallaf), psikologis (bertanggung jawab), hukum (ada identitias), sosial (menikah)
• Belajar bukan mencari ilmu pengetahuan tapi kearifan
• Pencarian ilmu : aktif
• Pengalaman diperhitungkan
Behavioral
• Hasil belajar merupakan perubahan perilaku
• Untuk itu perlu observasi
• Ada alat ukur untuk mengukur perilaku
Behavioral, lanj
• Dasar pemikiran: manusia belajar dipengaruhi oleh stimulus dan lingkungan
• Manusia belajar karena ada pembiasaan/dikondisikan
• Dikondisikan merupakan inti pembelajaran
Behavioral, lanj
• Dikondisikan : berarti perilaku dipaparkan kepada sesuatu stimulus, sedemikian rupa sehingga membentuk suatu respon spesifik
• Dilatih untuk berespon secara otomatis sampai menimbulkan efek
• Latihan dilakukan terus menerus, jika tidak dilatih perilaku yang sudah terbentuk akan hilang
Behavioral, lanj
• Latihan diberikan sedikit demi sedikit
• Situasi/lingkungan yang menyenangkan menyebabkan perilaku dipertahankan
• Dengan demikian terjadi proses pembelajaran pasif dan kurang melibatkan proses fikir
Behavioral, lanj
• Watson (1926) : with appropriate stimulus children could be brought up to become manager, thieves, etc
• Thorndike
• Pavlov
• Skinner Contoh
Thorndike
• Behaviorism also called the learning
perspective (where any physical action is a behavior),
• is a philosophy of psychology based on the
proposition that all things which organisms do
— including acting, thinking and feeling — can and should be regarded as behaviors.[1]
Thorndike , lanj
• The school of psychology maintains that behaviors as such can be described
scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to
hypothetical constructs such as the mind.[2]
Thorndike , lanj
• Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feeling).[3]
• From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrently and shared
commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt
movements in psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the Gestalt
psychologists in critical ways.[citation needed] Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected
introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and B.F. Skinner who
conducted research on operant conditioning.[3]
Pavlov
• Behaviorisme terutama terkait dengan Pavlov (classical conditioning) di Rusia dan dengan
Thorndike, Watson dan Skinner terutama di Amerika Serikat (instrumental conditioning).
• Behaviourism is dominated by the constraints of its (naïve) attempts to emulate the physical sciences, which entails a refusal to speculate about what happens inside the organism.
• Anything which relaxes this requirement slips into the cognitive realm.
Skinner
• The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt
behavior.
• Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment.
• A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitng a ball, or solving a math problem.
Skinner, lanj
• When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R)
pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.
• Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory.
• A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response.
• It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction.
Skinner, lanj
• The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased
frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses).
• A great deal of attention was given to
schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval
versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.
Skinner, lanj
• One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to provide
behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena.
• For example, Skinner explained drive
(motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules.
Skinner, lanj
• Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and language within the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort was strongly rejected by linguists and
psycholinguists.
• Skinner (1971) deals with the issue of free will and social control
Example:
• By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968)
• 1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps
• 2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback
• 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement
• 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with
secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades
Behavior Principles
• 1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is
particularly effective
• 2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping")
• 3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning
Hobson, 1986
• Kategori wadah penemuan pengetahuan:
• Sekolah, komunitas, alam/tanpa batas
• Sekolah: sikap, keyakinan dan nilai-nilai diperoleh di sekolah
• Komunitas : sikap, keyakinan dan nilai-nilai diperoleh di masyarakat, seperti budaya
• Tanpa batas : keingintahuan (saat ini sangat berkembang IT)
Fase-fase belajar
• Diterima
• Diinternalisasi
• Dievaluasi
Theories and Models of Learning for Educational Research and Practice
• This knowledge base features
learning theories that address how people learn.
• A resource useful for scholars of various fields such as educational psychology, instructional design, and human-computer interaction.
Learning Theories
• In psychology and education, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and
animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning.
There are three main categories (philosophical frameworks) under which learning theories
fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
Behaviorism
Skinner
• Radical Behaviorism is a pragmatic approach to psychology [1].
• It is an approach to psychology which supports that learning is the result of operant
conditioning.
• Operant conditioning is a process both named and investigated by B. F. Skinner.
• The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’.
Skinner
• Briefly, a behavior may result either in
reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again;
• or punishment,which decreases the likelihood of the same behavior recurring in the future.
• The issues surrounding are relatively complex.
• For example, a reinforcer or a punisher is defined within behaviorism by its effect on behavior.
Skinner
• Therefore a punisher is not considered to be
punishment if it does not result in the reduction of a particular behavior.
• As a result, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior, which is itself a basic premise of the scientific method.
• Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and
direct instruction have emerged from this model.
Cognitive history
• Since the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change.
• Much of the empirical framework of
Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm was begun.
Cognitive history
• Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.
• Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning.
• So for example how the natural physiological processes of encoding information into short term memory and long term memory become important to educators.
Cognitive history
• New cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s.
• Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory.
• These theories of learning are very useful as they guide the Instructional design.
Constructivism
• Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current
and past knowledge. In other words, “learning involves constructing one’s own knowledge
from one’s own experiences.”
Constructivism
• Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real- world context.
• The teacher acts as a facilitator who
encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by
working to solve realistic problems.
Constructivism
• This is also known as knowledge construction as a social process (see social constructivism).
• We can work to clarify and organize their ideas so we can voice them to others.
• It gives us opportunities to elaborate on what they learned.
• We are exposed to the views of others.
Constructivism
• It enables us to discover flaws and
inconsistencies by learning we can get good results.
• Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and
knowledge building.
• Regardless of the variety, constructivism
promotes a student’s free exploration within a given framework or structure.
Kolb’s Learning Style
• Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is actually the product of two pairs of variables,
• Concrete Experience - CE (feeling) ---V--- Abstract Conceptualization - AC (thinking)
• Active Experimentation - AE (doing)---V--- Reflective Observation - RO (watching)
Kolb’s Model
• gambar
Penjelasan Model
• A typical presentation of Kolb's two
continuums is that the east-west axis is called the Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north-south axis is called the Perception Continuum (our emotional
response, or how we think or feel about it).
Penjelasan Model
• These learning styles are the combination of two lines of axis (continuums) each formed between what Kolb calls 'dialectically related modes' of 'grasping experience' (doing or
watching), and 'transforming experience' (feeling or thinking):
Kolb
• This suggests that there are four stages in learning which follow from each other: Concrete Experience is followed by Reflection on that experience on a personal basis. This may then be followed by the derivation of general rules describing the experience, or the application of known theories to it
(Abstract Conceptualisation), and hence to the construction of ways of modifying the next occurrence of the experience (Active Experimentation), leading in turn to the next
Concrete Experience. All this may happen in a flash, or over days, weeks or months, depending on the topic, and there may be a "wheels within wheels" process at the same time.
• The word 'dialectically' is not widely understood, and yet carries an essential meaning, namely 'conflicting' (its ancient Greek root means 'debate' - and I thank P Stern for helping clarify this precise meaning). Kolb
meant by this that we cannot do both at the same time, and to an extent our urge to want to do both creates
conflict, which we resolve through choice when
confronted with a new learning situation. We internally decide whether we wish to do or watch, and at the
same time we decide whether to think or feel.
• The result of these two decisions produces (and helps to form throughout our lives) the preferred learning style, hence the two-by-two matrix below.
We choose a way of 'grasping the experience',
which defines our approach to it, and we choose a way to 'transform the experience' into something meaningful and usable, which defines our
emotional response to the experience. Our learning style is a product of these two choice decisions
