Cliticization in standard English a study on its forms and morphophonemic processes

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CLITICIZATION IN STANDARD ENGLISH: A STUDY ON

ITS FORMS AND MORPHOPHONEMIC PROCESSES

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

In English Letters

By

DYAH RIZKY MARSHA RAMADHANI

Student Number: 104214079

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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ii

CLITICIZATION IN STANDARD ENGLISH: A STUDY ON

ITS FORMS AND MORPHOPHONEMIC PROCESSES

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

In English Letters

By

DYAH RIZKY MARSHA RAMADHANI

Student Number: 104214079

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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A Sariana Sastra llndergraduate Thesis

CLITICIZATION IN

STAIYDARD

ENGLISH: A

STUDY ON

ITS

FORMS

AND MORPHOPHONEMIC

PROCESSES

November 3.2014

November 3,2A14

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A Sarjana Sssffo Undergraduate Thesis

CLITICIZATION

IN

STAI\IDARI}

ENGLISH: A

STUDY ON

ITS TORMS

AI{D MORPHOPHONEMIC

PROCESSES

By

DYAH RIZKY MARSHA RAMADHANI

Student Number: l04,zt 4A79

Defended before the Board of Examiners OnNovember 24,2414

Acceptable

Secretary

Member 1

Member2

Memkr 3

Yogyakarta Novernber 28, 2Al 4

Faculty of Letters

Sanata Dharma University Dean

Dr. F.X. Siswadi, M.A.

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fr

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I

certify that this undergraduate thesis contains no material which has been

previously submitted for the award of any other degree at any university, and that.

to the

best

of my

knowledge, this undergraduate thesis contains no material

previously written by any other person except where due reference is made in the text ofthe undergraduate thesis

Yogyakarta, November 3, 201 4

D-yah Rirky Marsha Ramadhani

T-r

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LEMBAR PER}IYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA

ILMIAH

UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKAI}EMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma

Nama

: Dyah Rizky Marsha Ramadhani

NomorMahasiswa : 104214079

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul

CLITICIZATION

IN

STANDARD

ENGLISII:

A

STUDY ON

ITS

FORMS

AND MORPHOPHONEMIC

PROCESSES

Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata

Dharma

hak

untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam

bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya

di

internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta

ijin

kepada saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya

selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal 3 November 2014

Dyah Rizky Marsha Ramadhani

vi

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vii

LIVE LIFE SO WELL THAT EVEN

DEATH LOVES TO SEE YOU

EXIST

(

ANONYMOUS

)

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-littleswindler.tumblr.com-viii

DEDICATED TO ALL ORDINARY

PEOPLE WHO TRY TO CHANGE THE

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ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my deepest praise and gratitude to the

almighty God for His blessing, caring, and everything upon my life. Because of

the given chance to make me ever existed in this world, I am able to enjoy this

wonderful yet challenging life of mine.

Second, I would like to express my gratitude and respect for my family

members: my father, my mother, and my brother. I thank them for becoming the

first humans I ever meet in this world. Also for my cats which have ever been my

cute, lovely friends.

I would like to address my deepest gratitude to my advisor Dr. Fr. B. Alip,

M.Pd., M.A. and my co-advisor Anna Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum., for their advice and

guidance in order to complete this thesis.

I would like to appreciate all English Letters lecturers and staff for their

companion in this past four years during my study in Sanata Dharma University.

Furthermore, I thank all my comrades in Class C of 2010 for the fabulous years

together. I also would like to express my special gratitude for Hanny, Wulan, and

Chiko for being such great friends. I will never forget our togetherness, love-hate

relationships, and spectacular college life. Afterwards, I would like to express my

biggest gratitude for Lenny for her caring, support, printing equipments, and for

always warns me to finish this thesis quickly. I also would like to thank Mbak

Putri, Cory, and Lidya for the unforgettable madness in Gelatik 8.

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x

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY... 19

A. Object of the Study ... 19

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xi

C. Method of the Study ... 21

1. Data Collection ... 21

2. Data Analysis ... 22

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ... 24

A. The Clitics Forms... 24

1. Auxiliary Reduction... 28

2. Negative Contraction ... 31

3. to- Contraction ... 34

4. Pronominal Clitics ... 35

B. Morphophonemic Processes Which Are Applied to the Clitics ... 36

1. Auxiliary Reduction... 36

a. Is and has ... 37

i. Is... 38

ii. Has ... 39

b. Would ... 40

c. Am ... 41

d. Are... 41

e. Will... 42

f. Have ... 42

2. Negative Contraction ... 43

3. to- Contraction ... 45

4. Pronominal Clitics ... 46

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ... 47

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 49

APPENDICES... 51

Appendix 1: Information of the Magazines... 51

Appendix 1.1: Cover Page of HighEnd Magazine ... 51

Appendix 1.2: Cover Page of HighEnd Teen Magazine ... 52

Appendix 2: Table of the Occurrences of Cliticizations in Magazines ... 53

Appendix 2.1: Table of the Cliticizations in HighEnd Magazine... 53

Appendix 2.2: Table of the Cliticizations in HighEnd Teen Magazine... 58

Appendix 3: Table of Data Classification Based on Types of Cliticizations ... 67

Appendix 3.1: Table of the Types of Cliticizations in HighEnd Magazine ... 67

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xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. The list of negative contraction in auxiliaries and modal verbs ... 12

Table 2. Types of cliticization in HighEnd magazine ... 27

Table 3. Types of cliticization in HighEnd Teen magazine... 27

Table 4. Auxiliary reduction in HighEnd magazine ... 29

Table 5. Auxiliary reduction in HighEnd Teen magazine ... 30

Table 6. Negative contraction in HighEnd magazine ... 33

Table 7. Negative contraction in HighEnd Teen magazine ... 34

Table 8. to- contraction in HighEnd and HighEnd Teen magazines ... 35

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xiii

ABSTRACT

RAMADHANI, DYAH RIZKY MARSHA. Cliticization in Standard English:

A Study on its Forms and Morphophonemic Processes. Yogyakarta:

Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2014.

Morphology is one of the major subfields of linguistics. It is the study about the forms and structures of words. One of common morphological phenomena in morphology is cliticization. A clitic is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but shows evidence of being phonologically bound to another word (Kim, 1998:429). Nowadays, clitics are common to be used in either verbal or non-verbal communication. One of the common occurrences is in magazines. In order to observe further about this phenomenon, the researcher conducts a research about the occurrence of clitics in two magazines as comparison. The researcher takes two Indonesian monthly magazines which use English as the primary language in almost the whole articles. They are HighEnd and HighEnd Teen magazine.

This research has two problems. The first problem is focusing in identifying the forms of clitics which occurred in the two magazines. The second problem concentrates in the morphophonemic processes that are applied to the clitics.

The method of this study of clitics form and morphophonemic process is an empirical research because it uses the collected data, which are the clitics, as the primary data for accomplishing the analysis. Then the clitics are categorized based on their types according to the theory of Kim (1998). Meanwhile, the second analysis deals with the morphophonemic processes that are applied in the clitics by applying the theory by Lam (2003).

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xiv

ABSTRAK

RAMADHANI, DYAH RIZKY MARSHA. Cliticization in Standard English:

A Study on its Forms and Morphophonemic Processes. Yogyakarta: Jurusan

Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2014.

Morfologi adalah salah satu subbidang utama linguistik. Studi tersebut mengenai bentuk dan struktur kata-kata. Salah satu fenomena morfologi umum dalam studi morfologi adalah klitisisasi. Sebuah klitika merupakan morfem yang memiliki karakter sintaksis dari sebuah kata, tetapi menunjukkan bukti fonologis terikat ke kata lain (Kim, 1998:429). Saat ini, klitika umumnya digunakan dalam komunikasi verbal maupun non-verbal. Salah satu penggunaan yang umum adalah di majalah. Dalam rangka untuk menganalisa lebih lanjut mengenai fenomena ini, peneliti melakukan penelitian tentang terjadinya klitika dalam dua majalah sebagai perbandingan. Peneliti mengambil dua majalah bulanan Indonesia yang menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa utama di hampir seluruh artikelnya. Kedua majalah tersebut berjudul HighEnd dan HighEnd Teen.

Penelitian ini memiliki dua rumusan masalah. Rumusan masalah pertama berfokus pada identifikasi bentuk klitika yang terjadi pada dua majalah tersebut. Rumusan masalah kedua berkonsentrasi pada proses morfofonemik yang diterapkan pada klitika.

Metode penelitian dari bentuk klitika dan proses morfofonemik ini adalah penelitian empiris karena menggunakan data yang dikumpulkan, yaitu klitika tersebut, sebagai data utama untuk menyelesaikan analisa ini. Kemudian klitika tersebut dikategorikan berdasarkan jenisnya dengan menerapkan teori dari Kim (1998). Sementara itu, analisa kedua berkaitan dengan proses morfofonemik yang diterapkan pada klitika dengan mengaplikasikan teori oleh Lam (2003).

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1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Morphology is one of the major subfields of linguistics. It is the study

about the forms and structures of words (Mathews, 1991:22). It refers to the way

words are constructed with stems, prefixes, and suffixes. In morphology, there are

some common morphological phenomena like affixation, cliticization, internal

change, suppletion, stress and tone placement, reduplication, compounding, and

so on. In this paper, the writer will explain one of those phenomena which are

now often used by every people who speak and write in English. It is cliticization.

Clitics are now common to be used in either verbal or non-verbal communication.

In this study, the writer will explain about the forms of clitics and the

morphophonemic processes which occur in clitics.

A clitic is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but

shows evidence of being phonologically bound to another word. Cliticizations (or

contractions), in morphosyntax, is a process by which a complex word is formed

by attaching a clitic to a fully inflected word (Kim, 1998:429).

Morphophonemic is the branch of morphology, deals with the variation in

the forms of morphemes because of phonetic factor (Lam, 2003:5). Meaning to

say, it concerns with the phonemic shapes which represent the morphemes. In

order to understand the morphophonemic of clitics, it is considered to analyze not

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a single essential representation for the morpheme and to formulate rules that will

obtain the appropriate pronunciation for any particular context.

In this research, the researcher took two Indonesian monthly magazines

which use English as the primary language in almost the whole articles. They are

HighEnd and HighEnd Teen magazine which are published in the same month, January 2014, as the first publication of year 2014. These two magazines are

published by the same publication, P.T. MNI Entertainment. However, the target

readers of these two magazines are different. HighEnd magazine aims the adults

from upper class society as the target readers by saying that the people featured in

the magazine are the people who are high class like them, while HighEnd Teen

magazine aims the teenagers who are interested in international life style.

Cliticization is used in order to simplify the pronunciation of function words. The

researcher analyzes the clitics that are used in both of the magazines and

categorizing the forms of the clitics. After being categorized, the researcher

analyzes the morphophonemic process of how the clitics could be formed. Then it

will be compared to find out that the use of clitics will bring an impact towards

the contents of the two magazines.

Clitics are often being compared with affixes due to their similarity.

However, both of them are different. There are several researches about clitics,

and many of the researchers are identifying clitics by using other languages but

English to compare. However, present researches did not specify the clitics clearly

enough. Therefore, this topic is chosen because people are not aware that the

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contents of articles, also about the characteristics and how the clitics could be

formed by attaching to some words.

B. Problem Formulation

In order to be more focused in analyzing the issue, the researcher

formulates the problems of this study based on the above explanation as follows:

1. What are the clitics forms in HighEnd and HighEnd Teen magazines?

2. What morphophonemic processes are applied to the cliticizations?

C. Objectives of the Study

In accordance with the above problems formulation, there are two

objectives in this study. The first objective of this study is aimed at identifying the

forms of clitics in the two magazines. The description of clitics and the

examination of the status of clitics in a general theory of language structure have

to be differentiated by distinguishing clitics from affixes and independent words.

As the first objective begins to analyze clitics morphologically, the second

objective of this study is to identify the morphophonemic process of clitics. This

is aimed at describing the occurrence of clitic based on its morphophonemic

process. On any further, this objective explains about projecting the underlying

representations from the morphophonemic alternations of clitics and to find out

the indication of the process whether it leads to a certain meaning or it creates a

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D. Definition of Terms

To avoid misunderstanding and to clarify certain terms, a definition of

terms is needed.Morphology as a part of linguistic study has a lot of definitions from

some experts.There is a term from Hornby that explains morphology as the study

of the morphemes of a language and how they are combined to make words

(1974:549), while according to Katamba, morphology is the study of the internal

structure of words (1993:2). Another definition from Nida explains that

morphology is the study of morphemes and their arrangements in forming words

(1962:1). Some definitions above have the same point that morphology is a sub

discipline study from linguistics that concerns in the process of word formation

and refers to the way words are constructed with stems, prefixes, and suffixes.

The morphology of something is its forms and structure. The main point of

studying morphology is on how to identify morphemes and their distributions and

combinations in forming words.

According to Anderson, etymologically, clitic is from a Greek word

klinein, which means to lean or to attach on something. A clitic is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but shows evidence of

being phonologically bound to another word (2005:1). Clitics are unable to stand

alone as independent forms for phonological reasons. They must be attached to

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Clitics are elements which share certain properties of fully fledged words, but which lack the independence usually associated with words. In particular, they

can’t stand alone, but have to be attached phonologically to a host. This makes

them look a little like affixes, in particular, inflectional affixes. Typically, clitics are function words, such as modal participles (e.g. interrogative participles), conjunctions, pronominals or auxiliary verbs. Historically, they generally develop from fully fledged words and frequently develop into inflectional affixes (Spencer, 1991:350).

A clitic also may have a non-clitic alternant. There are two forms of clitics.

The first is proclitic, which means that the clitic is de-stressed and becomes part

of the following word to which it is phonologically joined. The example by

Crystal is d’you which is derived from the words do and you (1980:64). The

second form of clitics is enclitic, which is de-stressed and phonologically joined

at the end of a preceding word to form a single unit. Mish has given the example

as inwon’twhich derived from the words will and not (1991:49).

Kim has briefly explained that there are several types of cliticization such

as auxiliary reduction, negative contraction, to- contraction and pronominal clitics.

Those are all subclasses of the same general process of cliticization. Cliticization

simplifies the pronunciations of the function words. It reduces the awareness to

function words, helping to make the content words easier to be noticed (2005:429).

O’Grady has clearly explained that a morphophonemic process occurs at

morpheme boundaries and it involves sounds that are associated with separate

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6

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter consists of three parts. They are review of related studies,

review of related theories, and theoretical framework. Review of related studies

explains the studies done by other researchers on similar topics and examines

some theories applied in this thesis. Each study is reviewed to find the

resemblances and the dissimilar point of views in order to avoid topics duplication.

Review of related theories contains the theories that are used by the researcher for

the analysis. Some theories applied are also evaluated and discussed to find a

constant base on which this thesis is carried on. The last part of this chapter,

theoretical framework, is about the contributions of related theories to the analysis

of this study.

A. Review of Related Studies

1. English Cliticization and Intonational Phrase (Kim, 1998)

There are two reviews which are relevant to the present research. The first

is the article from Young-Sun Kim from Hanshin University titled English

Cliticization and Intonational Phrase. The research was presented at the workshop of the Generative Grammar Circle on December 11th, 1998. This study

deals with cliticization in English, which signifies the process of adding a clitic to

its host. The term clitic indicates an item which is an unstressed weak element and

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order to minimize the pronunciation of function words when they are unstressed.

There are four types of cliticizations. First is auxiliary reduction, which means

that the auxiliaries are reduced to become the clitics of function words. The

second is negative contraction, which means that the negator not is contracted into

n’t when attaching to the auxiliaries or modal verbs. Third is to- contraction,

which means that the word to is becoming the clitic of a certain verb. The

to-contraction is rather complicated to be described, because it is argued that the

relation between wanna and want to must be syntactically wrong. Also, the

lexicalization accounts of to-contraction are wrong, because wanna and hafta are

assumed to be synchronically unrelated to want and have. However, the

phonological approach using the intonational phrase can relate the relevant data.

Moreover, the last type is pronominal clitics, which is pronounced in verb particle

constructions and in dative constructions which behave like clitics. Pronominal

clitics are in the course of cliticizing.

The study done by Kim analyzed clitics by their forms and suggested that

cliticization applies to the function words and is sensitive to some phonological

factors such as stress and phonological boundaries rather than the trace-based

adjacency condition in the past. Phonological facts have been mistaken for

syntactic ones. Those objectives are similar to the present study done by the

researcher. However, this research is to develop from the previous study. This

research is different from the above study because this research is aimed at

explaining the cliticization not just by morphologically or phonologically but the

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2. Taking a Free Ride in Morphophonemic Learning (McCarthy, 2005)

The second review which is also relevant to this research comes from John

J. McCarthy from University of Massachusetts. The research was written in an

article of Catalan Journal of Linguistics journal volume 4, 2005, entitled Taking a

Free Ride in Morphophonemic Learning. The study focuses on the basic learning of morphophonemic process. McCarthy suggested that in morphophonemic

learning, the underlying representations influence the grammar and the grammar

influences the underlying representations. As learners begin to analyze

morphologically complex words, they discover morphophonemic alternations for

which the identity map is insufficient. In the article, McCarthy has pursued the

idea that learners simultaneously consider various hypotheses about underlying

representation, rejecting any for which no grammar is possible and preferring the

one that allows the most restrictive grammar. Morphophonemic learning

necessarily intersects with phonological opacity which presents its own learning

challenges. It remains to be seen whether the proposal developed here can be

modified and extended to address this notably thornier problem.

In the last review, the study done by McCarthy is about the basic learning

of morphophonemic. The similarity of this study with the present research is on

the phonological concerns from analyzing the morphologically complex words.

However, this study is different from the present study because the present

research analyzes the morphophonemic process by applying the theories of

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B. Review of Related Theories

1. Theory on Cliticization

According to Stephen R. Anderson in his article entitled Clitics (2010), he

clearly explains that the property of being a clitic in this sense is not necessarily a

characteristic of a lexical item, but rather of a phonological form which can

realize that lexical item. The same item may well have both clitic and non-clitic

forms. The classic example of this is the case of the auxiliary verbs in English.

Many of these have both full, non-clitic forms (is, has, had, would, will, etc.) and

clitic forms (’s, ’d, ’ll, etc.). From the point of view of the grammar, these are

essentially free variants. If a reduced (clitic) form is chosen to lexicalize the

auxiliary in a given sentence, however, this may result in prosodic ill-formedness,

as a consequence of the impossibility of incorporating the prosodically deficient

item into the overall sound structure of the sentence in a well-formed way. Apart

from these differential phonological effects, however, the reduced and unreduced

auxiliaries are instantiations of the same grammatical element.

1.1 Theory of Auxiliary Reduction

The first type of cliticization, auxiliary reduction, has been clearly

analyzed by Arnold M. Zwicky in his book Auxiliary Reduction in English (1970).

In the paper he examines the English contraction rule Auxiliary Reduction, by

way of investigating the extent to which it and rules related to it are dependent

upon information not available in surface structure, or are restricted by complex

conditions referring to syntactic and phonological information available in surface

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here (or elsewhere), it shall not attempt to extend phonological theory to

accommodate these facts. This extension must wait upon the accumulation of

further data of similar type. Further explanation regarding auxiliary reduction can

be divided as follows.

a. The rule glide deletion

This rule drops morpheme-initial [h] quite generally, [w] only in will,

would, was, and were, and [ð] in they, them, than, this, these, that, those, and there. It does not affect [y]. Zwicky (1970:326) briefly mentioned that in slow, careful speech the rule does not apply. At moderate rates of speech it applies to

certain unstressed pronouns and auxiliaries (he, him, his, her, have, having, has,

had, will, would, them, and than), and in faster speech it is extended to the other listed forms with [w] and [ð], and to all occurrences of [h] before syllables with

relatively weak stress. The vowel following the [h] bears stress, but relatively

little in contrast to nearby syllables. The restriction of glide deletion is applied to

only a few forms in [ð] and [w]. It does not seem to have an explanation in terms

of other facts about English, although considerations of general phonological

theory are undoubtedly relevant here, [h] being, in general, more likely to drop

than [ð] or [w], and [w] more likely than [y].

b. Initial observations on auxiliary reduction

Zwicky (1970:327) stated that his rule and NOT-Contraction are the most

familiar contraction rules of English, the ones regularly represented in the

orthography. This section explains that auxiliary reduction applies to eight forms

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which reduces to [v]; am, which reduces to [m]; are, which reduces to [r]; and will,

which reduces to [1]. While the reduction of is and has take places regardless of

the nature of the preceding word, the reduction of will, have, am and are are

restricted. In non-rhotic dialects of English, the cliticization of are is deleted.

According to Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, learners of British English are

advised not to use weak forms other than [ju]; [jə ] is unusual in Received

Pronunciation, while [j] is clearly non-Received Pronunciation. In General

American, on the other hand, the weak form [jə ] is acceptable. Therefore, the

reduction of are [ar] into‘re[r] is acceptable only in rhotic dialects of English.

c. Restrictions on auxiliary reduction: preceding context

In this section, Zwicky (1970:331) stated that the reduction of is and has

takes place regardless of the nature of the preceding word. It is natural to suppose

that just as the reduced forms of is/has correspond to the [s z iz] inflectional

endings, so the reduced forms of would/had would correspond to the [t d id]

inflectional endings, the regular past tense and past participle endings. However,

the restrictions on contraction of the remaining forms (will, have, am, are) are

even more severe. Auxiliary reduction does not apply to these forms after

non-pronouns, even those ending in vowels. The correct generalization is that auxiliary

reduction applies to will, have, am, and are only after one of a small set of

pronominal form.

1.2 Theory of Contracted Forms in Negative Contraction

Except in formal English, the negator usually occurs in the enclitic

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Pullum’s Cliticization vs. Inflection: English n’t (1983), by the contrasts in

between English clitic auxiliaries (e.g. ’s ‘is, has’, ’d ‘would’) and the element

they argue is an inflectional affix,n’tor might be said as‘NEG’.

Zwicky and Pullum (1983:508) have made the list of negative contractions

in auxiliaries and modal verbs. The table can be seen as follows:

No Auxiliaries and Modal Verbs

Phonetic Transcription

Negative Contraction Form

Phonetic Transcription

1. do [du] don’t [dont]

2. does [dʌ z] doesn’t [dʌ zṇ t]

3. did [dɪd] didn’t [dɪdṇ t]

4. have [hæv] haven’t [hævṇ t]

5. has [hæz] hasn’t [hæzṇ t]

6. had [hæd] hadn’t [hædṇ t]

7. can [kæn] cannot

can’t

[kænat] [kænt]

8. could [k d] couldn’t [k dṇ t]

9. may [me] — —

10. might [mait] mightn’t [maitṇ t]

11. shall [ æl] shan’t [ ænt]

12. should [ d] shouldn’t [ dṇ t]

13. will [wɪl] won’t [wont]

14. would [w d] wouldn’t [w dṇ t]

15. dare [der] daren’t [dernt]

16. must [mʌ st] mustn’t [mʌ sṇ t]

17. need [nid] needn’t [nidṇ t]

18. ought [ɔ t] oughtn’t [ɔ tṇ t]

19. am [æm] — —

20. are [ar] aren’t [arnt]

21. is [ɪz] isn’t [ɪzṇ t]

22. was [wʌ z] wasn’t [wʌ zṇ t]

23. were [wṛ ] weren’t [wṛ nt]

24. — — ain’t [ent]

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Based on the Table 1, the clitic auxiliaries can attach to words of any class

that happen to fall at the right edge of the preceding constituent. n’t can only be

added to finite forms of auxiliary and modal verbs. Combinations of clitic

auxiliaries with preceding material are limited only by the possibilities of the

syntax; some combinations of modal plus n’t do not exist (e.g. mayn’t, amn’t)

while one (ain’t) does not correspond to a specific non-negative form.

Combinations of host plus clitic auxiliary are governed by the regular phonology

of English as seen for instance in regular plurals and past tense forms with the

endings /z/ and /d/; forms such asdon’t,won’t,can’tandshan’tbear idiosyncratic

relations to their non-negative counterparts.

Clitic auxiliaries make the same syntactic and semantic contribution to a

sentence as full forms; auxiliaries inn’tcan have idiosyncratic semantics. Thus, in

you mustn’t go the negation is within the scope of the modal, while in you can’t

go the modal is in the scope of negation.

(Zwicky-Pullum, 1983:509)

Clitic auxiliaries do not move together with their host. Thus, a question

corresponding toI think John’s at the door isWho do you think’s at the door?and

not Who’s do you think at the door?. On the other hand, the negated auxiliaries move as a unit. The question corresponding to I haven’t any more bananas is

Haven’tyou any more bananas? and notHave youn’t any more bananas?

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Further, clitics are able to be added to other clitics. Take an example in

I’d’ve done it if you’d asked me. The English cliticized auxiliaries can attach to

material already containing clitics, though the inflectional affixes cannot.

However, negative contraction n’t cannot be applied. Thus, I wouldn’t be doing this unless I had to cannot be expressed asI’dn’tbe doing this unless I had to.

(Zwicky-Pullum 1983:507)

1.3 Theory of to- Contraction

The forms represented orthographically as wanna, hafta, gonna, oughta,

usta, and sposta have commonly been analyzed as involving a syntactic rule or cliticization operation called to-contraction. It has been observed that there is a

contraction rule permitting the infinitival to to be adjoined to some verbs like

want, yielding forms like wanna. In Pullum’s The Morpholexical Nature of English to-Contraction (1997), to- contraction is analyzed as a morpholexical rule, which suffixes /tu/ become /tə / to the base lexemes to form derived lexemes such

as wanna. He argues that the syntactic accounts of to- contraction are wrong to

assume that the relation between wanna and want to must be syntactic. He also

argues that the lexicalization accounts of to- contraction are wrong, because

wanna and hafta are assumed to be synchronically unrelated to want and have.

1.4 Theory of Pronominal Clitics

Andrew Radford in his book entitled Syntactic Theory and the Structure of

English; A Minimal Approach (1997), assumes that verbs can host clitics, but particles cannot. He raises a question as to why verbs are hospitable and particles

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the adjacent verbs, not to the particles is correlated with the fact that it is the verb

that case-checks the pronoun, not the particle. A head can check its features by

adjoining to another head. Since pronouns are heads, weak pronouns also check

their case by adjoining directly to the relevant agreement head. The cliticization of

the pronoun to the verb is so strong that it holds even in the cases of inseparable

particles, which stick together with the verb. Therefore, the cliticization of

pronouns with an apostrophe can be seen in the contraction of us inlet’s.

In some cases, pronominal clitics can be possibly occurred in other

pronouns like him, them, her, and etc. The pronoun him and them is contracted

into /m/, and her is contracted into /r/. However, the usage of those pronouns is

less occasional compared to us in let us.

2. Theory of Morphophonemic Changes

Morphophonemics, a branch of morphology, deals with the variation in the

forms of morphemes because of phonetic factor. Another theory is the theory of

morphophonemic changes by Nguyen Tai Lam’s Morphophonemics of English (2003). This theory explains about seven rules or changes of morphophonemic

which can be applied in English cliticization.

a. Simple change of phonemes

This rule defines the final consonant of the base is changed to match the

consonant nature of the initial phoneme in the affix. Take a look at path /pæθ /

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b. Loss of phonemes

This rule is described as one or more phoneme is dropped from the

original morpheme and its phonological content is altered. The example is in the

phoneme /n/ of the negative prefix {in-}, it is lost before the morphemes

beginning with sonorant sounds /m/; /r/; /l/ and /n/ (e.g. immobile, irregular,

illimitable). Also, the phoneme /t/ is lost when changing word’s class such adjective to a noun (e.g. different becomes difference, democrat becomes

democracy).

c. Assimilation and dissimilation.

Assimilation is replacing a sound by another sound under the influence of

a third sound which is near to it in a word or sentence. In resist /rɪzɪst/ and consist

/kə nsɪst/, the change of /z/ to /s/ is under the influence of nasal sound /n/. There is

another change due to assimilation of /n/ becomes /m/ before bilabial sounds /b/,

/p/, /m/. Example, in- + possible becomes impossible, in- + perfect becomes

imperfect, in- + moral becomes immoral. Prefix {in-} has the allomorph {im-} before the bilabial sounds /p/, /b/, /m/. Dissimilar to assimilation, dissimilation is

the combination of two morphemes which bring together two identical phonemes,

resulting in the change of one of them to a phoneme less like its neighbor. Take a

glimpse in the word in- + noble becomes ignoble. The Prefix {in-} has the

allomorph {ig-} which is the sound is less similar with the phoneme /n/.

d. Addition of the phonemes

This rule applied by adding another phoneme to the phonological content

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/sɒ lə mnaɪz/, the phoneme /n/ is added. While, long /lɒ ŋ/ becomes longer /

lɒ ŋgə (r)/. The phoneme /g/ is added. Also sword becomes swordsman; sale

becomes salesgirl; craft becomes craftsman, the phoneme /s/ is added.

e. Synthesis

Synthesis is described as the fusion of the two phonemes brought together

by morpheme combination into a single new phoneme. The example can be seen

as in moist /mɔɪst/ + -ure /-ur/ becomes moisture /mɔɪstʃ ə (r)/.

f. Stress shift and gradation

Stress shift is the addition of an affix to a word which is accompanied by a

shift in stress, and gradation is the process of derivation including stress shift

involves vowel change. Take a look at the example as in línguist becomes

linguistics and symbol becomes symboùlic. Here, the process of derivation including stress shift involves vowel change. This kind of change is called

gradation.

g. Suppletion.

This type of morphophonemic change is the occurrence of the allomorph

completely different in phonemic structure from the normal form. The essential

here is semantic similarity and complementary distribution. Different allomorphs

are suppletive forms. The examples as in verb go becomes went and sell becomes

sold in past tense.

From all the changes, the changes that are likely to be applied on

analyzing the morphophonemic processes of clitics are simple change of

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C. Theoretical Framework

In this theoretical framework, the researcher will explain how to solve the

problem formulations based on the theories which have been identified in the

previous part. To answer the first problem, the study from Young-Sun Kim titled

English Cliticization and Intonational Phrase (1998) explains about the process of adding a clitic to its host which is known as cliticization and also the forms of it.

This study contributes to help on the process of the placement or positioning of

clitics. Also the theory from Arnold M. Zwicky (1970) about the auxiliary

reduction contributes to the modifying process on the phonetic transcription of the

clitics. While the theory from Zwicky & Pullum (1983) contributes to identify the

negative contraction form of clitics. And also the theory from Pullum (1997) helps

to analyze the to- contraction form of clitics. The last theory is from Radford

(1997). This theory is about pronominal clitics, which means that pronouns is to

be contracted and becomes the clitics of certain verbs. These are relating to the

first problem that the researcher wants to analyze further about the forms of clitics.

For the second problem, in order to solve it, the first theory that is needed

and could be applied in the study is the Morphophonemic Changes by Lam (2003).

This theory is about the rules or regulations of the occurrence of the

morphophonemic process. This theory contributes to give the analysis of

morphological and phonological process that is known as morphophonemic

process on detail. This is related to the second problem which the researcher is

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19

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the researcher would present a description on the method

used in conducting the research. It would help the researcher to get a guidance of

doing this research. There are three parts of this chapter namely object of the

study, approach of the study, and method of the study. In the object of the study,

the researcher described the aim of this study. In the approach of the study, the

researcher explained what approaches that were used and why they were applied

to examine the study. In the method of the study, the researcher made the steps of

collecting and analyzing the data to answer the problems as stated in problem

formulation.

A. Object of the Study

Based on the problem formulations stated in Chapter I, this research

focused on the occurrence of clitics in English words. The data are from two

different magazines, HighEnd and HighEnd Teen, on the same edition January

2014. Then, both of the magazines were compared with some aspects regarding

the cliticization which occurs in the two magazines. Therefore, by the analysis,

the researcher would give further explanation and details about the data separately

in order to get the exact information from the two different magazines. Moreover,

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which were the cliticizations form the two magazines, were classified into each

types of clitics and then the morphophonemic processes were analyzed.

The data were collected from the cliticization in the two magazines. Also,

the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – 7th edition and the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary were used in order to consult the meaning and the phonetic transcription. One of the dictionaries was used as a back-up dictionary,

in case the other one did not have the certain details on the meaning or phonetic

transcription. Therefore, it was better to consult two dictionaries rather than only

one dictionary.

B. Approach of the Study

The study used morphology and phonology as the approach. The

researcher used those approaches because they were related to each other. In

morphology, the study presented word formation process to lead the step of

analyzing this research. Morphology is a study of the word-structure with the

morpheme as the smallest unit of the language. The morphological approach was

applied to the data as morphologic units to analyze. Morphological approach was

used in order to identify the forms of clitics. So, morphological approach was

suitable for this study because it learned about how to establish the word from the

morpheme. Phonology is a study of sound pattern. Besides, phonological

approach is identified to help how the sounds produced and what types of sound

would be considered to change the feature location. The phonological approach

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researcher identified the morphophonemic process by using both morphological

and phonological approach.

C. Method of the Study

The method of this study of clitics form and morphophonemic process was

an empirical research because it used the collected data as the primary data for

accomplishing the analysis. There are two parts in making the comprehensible

data. They are data collection and data analysis. In data collection, the researcher

described the steps of how the data were found and give some samples of the data

by table in appendix. In data analysis, the researcher analyzed the data which had

been gathered previously.

1. Data Collection

In order to collect the complete data in detail, the researcher bought the

two magazines in a certain bookstore. Then, the researcher read the two of them

carefully while meticulously noting the clitics which occurred in both of

magazines separately. The researcher was categorizing the clitics that were noted

according to the types. The clitics were listed in accordance of paging order. Then,

the data were checked on the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary to ensure

that the data were definite. In total, the researcher found 100 data in HighEnd

magazine and 250 data in HighEnd Teen magazine.

The researcher considered to find the phonetic transcription with the

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Longman Pronunciation Dictionary to write down the phonetic transcription. As of the previously data taken from the magazines, all words were transcribed.

2. Data Analysis

With the purpose of answering the Problem Formulation which was stated

before, the researcher took four steps in analyzing the collected data. The first step

was for solving the first problem. It was by gathering the basic information about

the magazines and later by identifying the contents of the magazines.

The second step, that was for classifying the forms of clitics. The words

that were served as the data were analyzed by the forms of the clitics. This step

was by categorizing the clitics one by one, whether they belonged to the certain

forms or the others. This step was also used in order to solve the first problem.

This step also applied the theory of auxiliary reduction by Zwicky (1970), theory

of negative contraction by Zwicky and Pullum (1983), theory of to-contraction by

Pullum (1997), and the theory of pronominal clitics by Radford (1997).

The third step was used to answer the second problem. The clitics that

were collected and categorized based on the forms were later being identified by

the derived words that formed the clitics.

The fourth step, which is the last step, the clitics that occurred in the data

was examined by the morphophonemic process of its occurrence. That was by

analyzing the morphemic process or the morpheme that constructed the words and

phonemic process or the modified phonetic transcription of the clitics. The theory

of morphophonemic changes by Lam (2003) was applied in this step. This step

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this study is identifying the clitics not only based on their morpheme but also on

their phoneme. In any further, the combination of both morphemic and phonemic

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24

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In order to understand how the analysis answers the problems in depth,

this chapter will be divided into two based on the problem formulations which

were formulated as follows: 1) What are the clitics forms in HighEnd and

HighEnd Teen magazines? 2) What morphophonemic processes are applied to the clitics? Therefore, with the reference to the two problem formulations, this chapter

intends to discuss the result of the analysis regarding the clitics forms in the two

magazines and the morphophonemic processes which are applied to the clitics.

Then, this research aims to achieve the understandings of the language

phenomena comprehensively.

A. The Clitics Forms

The data that were collected from HighEnd magazine have exactly 100

words from 85 sentences (see appendix I). The words were taken from the

beginning of the page, that is the cover, until the last page or known as back cover.

It had supposed to find the words which are cliticized. This magazine has 180

pages in the entire sheet. In total, there are 15 sections which contain clitics. They

are table of contents, from the editor desk, contributors, first look, advertorial,

style, beauty, his style, five senses, men’s muse, people, HighEnd medieval marvels, scene, art, and last look. The section which contains clitics which are

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all the types of cliticization in HighEnd magazine. There are only three types of

cliticization occurred. They are auxiliary reduction, negative contraction, and

to-contraction. The cliticization of pronominal clitics do not exist in the magazine.

The data that were gathered from HighEnd Teen magazine have precisely

250 words from 202 sentences (see appendix I). Same as the previous magazine,

the words were taken from the cover until the back cover of the magazine. It also

had expected to find all the types of cliticization in the magazine. Different from

the previous magazine, HighEnd Teen has 148 pages in the whole sheet. This

magazine also has more sections that contain clitics. There are 25 sections in total.

They are cover, advertorial, chief says, calendar, fashion news, mix and match,

teen socialite, designer, fashion item, fashion, beauty, cover story, cinema, hottie

of the month, music, hangout, school, list, smart, tips, relationship, editor’s pick,

grooming tips, snapshot, and celebrity quotes. The section which contains clitics

which are occurred the most is cover story, with 36 clitics. Unlike HighEnd

magazine, in this magazine all types of cliticization were found inside. It also has

more clitics compared to the previous one.

The cliticizations which are taken as the data in the two magazines are

taken by each sentence. Then, it is categorized based on the types of clitics. The

example and explanation can be seen below:

3-HE/11/ToC/1/1 Megan young also gave us an update on whatshe’sbeen up to.

As seen in 3-HE/11/ToC/1/1, one sentence as the example contains only

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the clitic. However, it is also possible to have more than one clitic in a sentence.

We can see the example below:

3-HET/24/Cal/8/8 She’sone of the most stylish woman I’vemet in my life.

3-HET/24/Cal/8/9 She’sone of the most stylish woman

I’vemet in my life.

In 3-HET/24/Cal/8/8 and 3-HET/24/Cal/8/9, we can see that there are two

clitics occurred in one sentence, she’s and I’ve. The two of them belong to the

same type, auxiliary reduction. Nevertheless, it is still possible to have different

types of cliticization in a same sentence. Take a look at the example beneath:

3-HE/101/MM/36/39

It’s always a good idea to have your eyes on the road when you’re driving, but what if something happens thatisn’t your wrongdoing, and the only eyewitness is you?

3-HE/101/MM/36/40

It’s always a good idea to have your eyes on the road when you’re driving, but what if something happens thatisn’t your wrongdoing, and the only eyewitness is you?

3-HE/101/MM/36/41

It’s always a good idea to have your eyes on the road when you’re driving, but what if something happens that

isn’t your wrongdoing, and the only eyewitness is you?

According to the example 3-HE/101/MM/36/39, 3-HE/101/MM/36/40,

and 3-HE/101/MM/36/41, we can find three clitics in the same sentence which

one of them belongs to a different type. It’s and you’re belong to auxiliary

reduction. On the other hand,isn’tbelongs to negative contraction.

Based on the data, the researcher compiles all the clitics in the two

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compares three things which are based on the two magazines. First is the amount

of clitics, second is the type of cliticization which is occurred the most, and third

is the cliticize word that exists the most compared to the other cliticize words. At

the end, the data can be shown in a table as follows:

TYPES OF

CLITICIZATION OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE

Auxiliary reduction 75 75%

Negative contraction 24 24%

to- contraction 1 1%

Pronominal clitics 0 0%

TOTAL 100 100%

Table 2. Types of cliticization in HighEnd magazine

In total HighEnd magazine has 100 clitics. From the number of

occurrences shown above, we can see that auxiliary reduction is the largest

cliticization which occurred in the magazine. Negative contraction comes in

second, and to- contraction comes in third. However, the researcher could not find

any types of pronominal clitics in it.

A similar table for the comparison between the two magazines will be

presented as follows:

TYPES OF

CLITICIZATION OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE

Auxiliary reduction 187 74%

Negative contraction 57 23%

to- contraction 1 1%

Pronominal clitics 5 2%

TOTAL 250 100%

Table 3. Types of cliticization in HighEnd Teen magazine

The above table is the comparison table for HighEnd Teen magazine. We

can see that this magazine has more clitics compared to HighEnd. Even the

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magazine has a similarity. Auxiliary reduction and negative contraction come in

first and second, same as the earlier. Also to- contraction have the same amount

with the previous magazine. On the contrary, HighEnd does not have any

pronominal clitics, HighEnd Teen has five pronominal clitics which make that

type as the third largest clitics in it.

Previously, a brief introductory for clitics forms are given. However, in

order to answer the first problem formulation in comprehensible explanations, the

first analysis which discusses the forms of clitics occurred within the two

magazines will be specified in subchapters according to each types of cliticization.

The researcher uses the theory of the forms suggested by Kim (1998:8). He states

that there are four types of cliticization: auxiliary reduction, negative contraction,

to- contraction, and pronominal clitics.

1. Auxiliary Reduction

This subchapter will give explanations regarding auxiliary reduction. The

theory that will be applied in this subchapter is the theory from Zwicky (1970).

As seen in the comparison table previously, auxiliary reduction is the most

cliticization which occurred in both of the two magazines with more than half

total occurrences respectively. This is sufficiently proven that auxiliary reduction

is the cliticization which is mainly used in the two magazines. However, to get the

exact number and further details about what kind of auxiliaries which are

contracted, another table concerning auxiliary reduction in HighEnd magazine can

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NO CONTRACTED

AUXILIARIES OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE

1. It’s 19 19%

2. That’s 16 16%

3. I’m 15 15%

4. You’d 3 3%

5. You’re 3 3%

6. Who’s 3 3%

7. You’ll 3 3%

8. You’ve 2 2%

9. She’s 1 1%

10. We’ll 1 1%

11. What’s 1 1%

12. I’d 1 1%

13. We’ve 1 1%

14. We’re 1 1%

15. There’s 1 1%

16. I’ve 1 1%

17. He’s 1 1%

18. They’re 1 1%

19. Sue nie’s been 1 1%

TOTAL 75 75%

Table 4. Auxiliary reduction in HighEnd magazine

From the table above, it’s becomes the most auxiliary that is contracted

with 19 occurrences. Then, that’s turns out to be the second most contracted

auxiliary with 16 occurrences, whereas I’m ranks on third with 15 occurrences.

There are also four auxiliary reductions which have the same three occurrences,

they are you’d, you’re, who’s and you’ll. There is also a single auxiliary that

happens to have two occurrences, you’ve. The rest eleven auxiliaries which are

contracted have one occurrences respectively, they are she’s, we’ll, what’s, I’d,

we’ve, we’re, there’s, I’ve, he’s, and they’re. In this magazine there is one

occurrence of a clitic which the head is not a pronoun but name of a person. It is

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Afterwards, the auxiliary reduction in HighEnd Teen magazine can also be

seen in the identical table as follows:

NO CONTRACTED

AUXILIARIES OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE

1. It’s 58 23%

2. You’re 26 9%

3. I’m 21 8%

4. She’s 13 4%

5. That’s 10 4%

6. You’ll 8 3%

7. There’s 7 2%

8. What’s 6 2%

9. Here’s 5 2%

10. We’ve 5 2%

11. We’re 4 1%

12. He’s 4 1%

13. I’ve 3 1%

14. They’re 3 1%

15 We’ll 2 1%

16. I’d 2 1%

17. Who’s 2 1%

18. She’ll 1 1%

19. She’d 1 1%

20. He’ll 1 1%

21. You’d 1 1%

22. We’d 1 1%

23. They’ve 1 1%

24. I’ll 1 1%

25. You’ve 1 1%

TOTAL 187 74%

Table 5. Auxiliary reduction in HighEnd Teen magazine

Based on the table above, we can see that in HighEnd Teen magazine, it’s

becomes the number one contracted auxiliaries with 58 occurrences and

percentage 23%. This is a quite higher number compared to the latter with only

19%. On the other hand, you’re becomes the second most contracted auxiliary

with 26 occurrences and percentage 9%. This is also a quite higher number

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data in total. After that, same as HighEnd, I’m becomes the third most occurred

contracted auxiliary in HighEnd Teen with 21 occurrences, whereas she’s turns

out to be the next with 13 occurrences. That’s comes out fifth with ten

occurrences, while you’ll comes next with eight occurrences. Two contracted

auxiliaries comes out afterward, they are there’s with seven occurrences and

what’s with six occurrences respectively. Next, there are also two contracted

auxiliaries which have five occurrences. They are here’s and we’ve following by

we’reandhe’sin the next with four occurrences. Two contracted auxiliaries have

the same three occurrences, they areI’veandthey’re. Subsequently, there are also

three contracted auxiliaries who have the same occurrence. They are we’ll, I’d,

and who’s with two occurrences. The rest eight contracted auxiliaries have one

occurrence correspondingly, they areshe’ll,she’d,he’ll,you’d,we’d,they’ve,I’ll,

andyou’ve.

2. Negative Contraction

Negative contraction becomes the second most cliticization which

occurred in both of the magazines. However, between auxiliary reduction and

negative contraction occurs a certain pattern for their occurrence in the data. The

example can be seen as follows:

3-HET/76/CS/38/47 “It’s not an aggressive approach to

what people are probably expecting.”

As seen in 3-HET/76/CS/38/47, there are two possible cliticizations in the

sentence, auxiliary reduction and negative contraction. The possible first form,

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possible second form, which is the negative contraction, is it isn’t. However, the

cliticization tends to occur in the auxiliary (it’s not) rather than the negative (it

isn’t). The researcher certainly believes that it is because the auxiliary occurs first

before the negative according to the example sentence. So the auxiliary reduction

is chosen better than the negative contraction. Take a look at another example for

this case:

3-HE/92/FS/24/26

The name of Mama Goose is rather unique for a restaurant that doesn’t

have goose on the menu.

From 3-HE/92/FS/24/26, it can be seen that there is only one possible

cliticization. That is the negative contraction,doesn’t. By observing the sentence,

the researcher is convinced that the negative contraction occurs because it is

unlikely to apply auxiliary reduction in the sentence. It is because there is no

contraction that occurred in the auxiliary verb, does. However, there is another

example in order to get the certain information of this phenomenon. It can be seen

briefly as follows:

3-HE/120/HMM/67/82 Several crusades and four centuries later, the palacehasn’tbeen heard.

According to 3-HE/120/HMM/67/82, there are also two possible

cliticizations that occurred. However, the negative contraction is chosen even

though the auxiliary verb, has, can be contracted. By looking and comparing the

previous patterns, the researcher suggests that the auxiliary reduction cannot be

occurred because the head of the cliticization is not a pronoun. As a result, the

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Therefore, in this subchapter there is a theory that is applied. It is the

theory of contracted forms in negative contraction by Zwicky and Pullum (1983).

HighEnd magazine has 24 contracted not with percentage 24%. On the other hand, HighEnd Teen magazine has 57 negative contractions with percentage

22%. In order to get the exact details of the cliticization, a table will be used to

show the precise features. It can be seen as follows:

NO. CONTRACTED

NEGATIVE OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE

1. Don’t 9 9%

2. Aren’t 4 4%

3. Doesn’t 3 3%

4. Wasn’t 2 2%

5. Can’t 2 2%

6. Isn’t 1 1%

7. Won’t 1 1%

8. Hasn’t 1 1%

TOTAL 24 24%

Table 6. Negative contraction in HighEnd magazine

From the table beyond, the negative contraction which occurred the most

in HighEnd is don’t with nine occurrences and percentage 9%. Then, aren’t

becomes the second with four occurrences. Doesn’t comes next with total three

occurrences. After that, there are two contracted negative with two occurrences.

They are wasn’t andcan’t. The rest of negative contractions areisn’t,won’t, and

hasn’twith the same one occurrence.

On the other hand, the identical table of negative contraction in HighEnd

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NO. CONTRACTED

NEGATIVE OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE

1. Don’t 30 12%

2. Didn’t 5 2%

3. Doesn’t 4 1%

4. Couldn’t 3 1%

5. Haven’t 3 1%

6. Aren’t 3 1%

7. Can’t 3 1%

8. Won’t 2 1%

9. Wasn’t 2 1%

10. Wouldn’t 1 1%

11. Isn’t 1 1%

TOTAL 57 23%

Table 7. Negative contraction in HighEnd Teen magazine

According to the table,don’tbecomes the most negative contraction which

occurred in the magazine same as the previous one. It has 31 occurrences from 57

in total with percentage 12%. The second most contracted negative goes todidn’t

with only five occurrences. Therefore, the gap between the first and the second is

pretty large. Then, there is doesn’t with four occurrences following by couldn’t,

haven’t,aren’t, andcan’twith three occurrences respectively. After that, there are also two negative contractions which have the same amount of occurrences. They

arewon’tandwasn’twith two occurrences correspondingly. The rest arewouldn’t,

andisn’twith the same single occurrence.

3. to- Contraction

A theory of to- contraction by Pullum (1997) will be applied in order to

specify this type. According to the data, this type of cltiticization becomes the

least type that occurred in the magazines. In total, to- contraction only happens

once in every magazines. Thus to make it short, the researcher makes only one

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NO. CONTRACTED

to- OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE

1 Wanna 1 1%

TOTAL 1 1%

Table 8. to- contraction in HighEnd and HighEnd Teen magazines

In total of hundreds clitics that occurred in the two magazines,

to-contraction only happens once respectively. Unlike the other types that have been

mentioned above, they have more than one clitic in each type. However in this

case, it is only wanna which becomes the single representative from this

cliticization’s type. The researcher assumes that the usage of to- contraction is

very minimum.

4. Pronominal Clitics

The last type of cliticizations named as pronominal clitics. The

cliticization of pronouns will be explained by applying the theory of pronominal

clitics by Radford (1997).

Pronominal clitics only existed in one magazine, HighEnd Teen, with five

occurrences in total. The clear details can be seen in a table as follows:

NO. CONTRACTED

PRONOUNS OCCURRENCES PERCENTAGE

1. Let’s 5 2%

TOTAL 5 2%

Table 9. Pronominal Clitics in HighEnd Teen Magazine

Based on the table above, there is only one pronominal clitic which

occurred in HighEnd Teen. It is wanna with five occurrences from 250. Same as

to- contraction, the usage of pronominal clitics is quite small compared to

(50)

only exists in one magazine, this shows that this type of cliticization is also pretty

minimum.

B. Morphophonemic Processes Which Are Applied to the Cliticization

The second analysis discusses about the morphophonemic processes which

are applied to the cliticization. In order to analyze the morphophonemic processes,

the researcher applied the theory about morphophonemic changes by Lam

(2003:6). He stated that there are seven rules of morphophonemic changes. They

are simple change of phonemes, loss of phonemes, assimilation and dissimilation,

addition of the phonemes, synthesis, stress shift and gradation, and suppletion.

However, the researcher proposes that not all of the morphophonemic changes are

likely able to be applied in the cliticization.

Therefore, the analysis of morphophonemic processes which occurred in

cliticization will also be examined in subchapters like the previous analysis about

the forms of cliticization. This aims to know the exact changes that can be

possibly applied in each forms of cliticization.

1. Auxiliary Reduction

In the previous analysis, it has been clearly examined that auxiliary

reduction becomes the type of cliticization which occurred mainly in both of the

magazines. Ac

Cliticization in standard English a study on its forms and morphophonemic processes

CLITICIZATION IN STANDARD ENGLISH: A STUDY ON

CLITICIZATION IN STANDARD ENGLISH: A STUDY ON

CLITICIZATION IN

ITS TORMS

AI{D MORPHOPHONEMIC

DYAH RIZKY MARSHA RAMADHANI

to the

LEMBAR PER}IYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA

ILMIAH

FORMS

LIVE LIFE SO WELL THAT EVEN

TABLE OF CONTENTS

APPROVAL PAGE ... iii

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE... 6

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY... 19

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ... 47

Appendix 1: Information of the Magazines... 51

LIST OF TABLES

ABSTRACT

RAMADHANI, DYAH RIZKY MARSHA. Cliticization in Standard English:

ABSTRAK

RAMADHANI, DYAH RIZKY MARSHA. Cliticization in Standard English:

CHAPTER I

A. Background of the Study

B. Problem Formulation

C. Objectives of the Study

D. Definition of Terms

The first is proclitic, which means that the clitic is de-stressed and becomes part

CHAPTER II

A. Review of Related Studies

2. Taking a Free Ride in Morphophonemic Learning (McCarthy, 2005)

B. Review of Related Theories

1.1 Theory of Auxiliary Reduction

1.2 Theory of Contracted Forms in Negative Contraction

No Auxiliaries and Modal Verbs

1.3 Theory of to- Contraction

1.4 Theory of Pronominal Clitics

2. Theory of Morphophonemic Changes

C. Theoretical Framework

CHAPTER III

A. Object of the Study

B. Approach of the Study

C. Method of the Study

1. Data Collection

2. Data Analysis

CHAPTER IV

A. The Clitics Forms

TYPES OF

TOTAL 100 100%

TYPES OF

TOTAL 250 100%

1. Auxiliary Reduction

NO CONTRACTED

TOTAL 75 75%

NO CONTRACTED

TOTAL 187 74%

2. Negative Contraction

NO. CONTRACTED

TOTAL 24 24%

NO. CONTRACTED

TOTAL 57 23%

3. to- Contraction

NO. CONTRACTED

to- OCCURENCES PERCENTAGE

4. Pronominal Clitics

NO. CONTRACTED

TOTAL 5 2%

B. Morphophonemic Processes Which Are Applied to the Cliticization

1. Auxiliary Reduction