Sufi order and resistance movement : the sanusiyya of Libya,1911-1932

SUFI ORDER

AND

RESISTANCE MOVEMENT: THE SANÜSMTA OF LIBYA, 1911-1932

A thesis

~ubdtted to the Fadty of Graduate Studies and Resevch

in p dfiiIfïhent of the requirements for the degree of Master of A a s

p - p p p p p p p p - p - - -

-- - -

hstitute of Isl?unic Studies McGill University, Montreal

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Author : Awalia Rahrna

Title : Sufi Oder and Resistance Movanent: The Sanisiyya O€ Libya, 191 1-1932

Department : Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill Universi9 DeWee : Mastez of Arts

This thesis is a stdy of the Sanïîsiyya osdex, in which partîculaf emphasis is placed on its role as a iesistance movement Based on a m e y of the socid, economic, rebgious and political adVities of this sufi b m t h d d and its involvement in the mbd system of the Noah Afkica diiting the first three decldes of bis century, an attempt will be made to identifir on the one hand die fhctom

t

h

ccmtgbuted to the stxength of its resistance to Italian invasicm, and cm the other, the elements that led to its fidur;e. It is ygraed that

its Mitiail success m the resistance benefited fiom the netwodt of the qibiyus

where

kdbxvin

h m diff-t tcibes were intepteci s o d l y and eccmornidy m accordance with strmg Islamic values. However, hck of d t v p training and w e a p s , dependenq on a prominent figue, cornpeting ambitions witbin the

Auteur : Awralia Rahma

Titre : Ordie sufi et mouvement de résistance: La SanÜsiyya

de Libye de 1911 à 1932

Département : Institut des Études IsWques, Université McGill Diplôme : WAt&e ès Arts

- - --

Ce mémoire porte sur i'énide de l'ordre SanGsiyya, avec une attention particulière sur son mouvement de résistance.

En

se fondant s u r les activités sociales, économiques, religieuses et politiques de la fratemité sufse, ahsi que son impfidon au sein du système txibd pendant la pénétration occidentale ea -que du Nord durant les trois premières décennies,

la

recherche tentera

dSidenti6er d'me p m les fiacteurs ayant contniué i

la

force de sa résistance à l'invasion italienne, et, d'autre p w les éléments qui ont causé sa chute.

Il

a été débattu que le succès initial de la Sankiyya dans la rédstance a pu tirex parti du

réseau des x&ytas où les i M w 2 des &€fiérentes tribus fixent intégrés

socialement et économiquement et ce, avec des valem islamiques solides. Toutefois, le peu d'entraînement militaire et d'mement,

h

dépendance à

I w d d like to express my gratitude in the k t place to Professor Eric

L

Onnsby, my academic advisor and diesis superclisoq whose schohdy cntiLism, patience and encouragement have made this thesis possible.

My

thvlks

ais0 go

to Pmfessor A. Üner T-y, the Diffaor of the Institute of Islamic Studies,

f

a

his imightfd couxnents. I wodd aiso like to thank my teachers at die

Institute, espediy Pmfessor Hemian Landolt, my former academic supervisor, and Fmugh J b b a k h s h who widened my insight mto Islamic

mystiusm and die

Pe-

hqpage. My thanks are also due to

S

h

Ferahkm and Wame

St.

Thomas of the Islamic Studies Libram for their assistance in

0

4

obtaining i e s d m a t d s . I wodd also like to record my t h a h to Zakgi

Ibrahim fbr his rneanhgfd help m the very eady stages of my study; and to Steve Wez for

his

editoriai help, espeady as he accomodated me

in

spite of

his

own busy schedule.

1 wkh to acknowIedge here the generosity of the Ministry of Religious

e

support and encouragement 1 am likewise gntefbl to my Indoneskm fiaends for th& wum fiendship during m y stay in Montreal,

The system of transliteration of Arabic wods and names applied

in

this

thesis

is

h t used

by

the Instihite of Isl?mic Studies, University. The table of tr;uisliteration is as follows:

b

= +

t

= a

th = &

j

=c

h

=t

kh

=i

d = 3 d h = i

=J

Short :

vii

TABU3 OF CONTENTS

Abstract R é d

Acknowledgements Transli teration Table of Contents

Intrioductim

Chapm 1 THE POLJTICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OFLIBYA IN THE EARLY TWENTlETH CENTURY A. People and Land

a B. Economy

C. Politid Situation

1. Ottoman Administration

2 Tripolitanian Resistance and the Emergence of the Repubk

of Tripolitania 3. Itahm Penetration

Chapter 11 ROLES OF THE SANÜSZYYA: THE CENTRAL POSITIONS

OF

smm,

I K H W ~ A N D

~FWYRT

A Stmctuie and Oiganizaaon of the SanÜsiyya

B. Socio-Religious Role

1. Dbikr as die essence of SanÜsiyya's Mystical Teachkgs 2 Education

3. ?'&ai Integration

C. Economic Role

Chapter III RE!SPONSES

TO

COLOISIAIJSM A. Baclrground of the Resistance

B. Responses tu Colonialism

1. Responses of the Libyan People 2 The SanGsiyya Responses

C. The SanÜsiyya Resistance: Roles of the Lea&g SanÜsiyya Leaders

1. The Role of Sayyid A i p d S h d f (1 813-1933)

2 The Role of Sa@ Muhammad Idris (1890-1983)

3. The Role of 'Uniar al-Mukhtk (1 862-1 931)

INTRODUCTION

The Sanusiyya movement constitutes an interesting phenornenon in Islamic history, and pvtiCUISlifly in that of North Ahican sufism. This sufi bmtherbood wls narned a f k its founder, Mdpmmad ibn

's

al-San= al-

~ham-bi al-~asd a1-1&;

a-miijiii

(1787-1859 AD), &

-

&O k n m

as the Ginnd SpniG, a prominent Sufi-scholat ia nineteenth ceatury Noah Afnca. This &a evolved fiom a rrhgious to a politid movernent when ît

b e p to play a substantial part in the sesistance agrinst the French

in

the Sdma, Wstthe British and

It?lians

in Cyremica and m the emergence of the

Kingdom of Iibya. The latter was d e d at k t

by SaniiSi's

p d s o n , Çayyid Mdpmmad Idris, who ascended die thme

in

1951, d y to lose it in a miiitaq

coup d'état led by

M u

'ammat al-Qaddafi in September 1969.

Ahmida discusses the soapl cuItuial and historical background of modem Libya

h m

the eady nineteenth centiiiy to the end of the amied anticolonial resistance? H e believes diat Sufi Islam, tribai d i t z u y ocg?nizauon and

d

traditions wem crucial M the f#ît against coloniafisfn. The politid and cultural legacy of the resistance has ais0 been pmeiful strengthdg Libyan n a t i d s m and leadiag to the m h l of a strcmg attichment to Islam

d

the clan. The memory of this pePod has not yet fided, and appreciation of this background is essential to understanding present-ciay Lib@

The p t Biitish anduopologist, Evans-Pritchard, cm the 0th- han4 interprets the Sanùsjlya's politicai development e s t th& historical background

in

Tba

S d

of

~ ~ 'Yet chere athe ~emphasis is more on the

development, traàng the historg of the SanGiyya fkom its ori@ to the @od of Itlliui colonjzabon.

The

present thesis is however as indebted to this book as

are so muiy odiec writings

tbnt

focus on Liiya.

A pdcular character is amibuted to the SanÜsiyya by Nicola Ziadeh who

sees the brotherhds d e as that of a revivaiist movement. As Leoivalist

2 Ah Abcidatif Ahmidz. Th Making ofM& fi& Shte F o d n , Cdof*@im

a d &abta=, 1830-1932 (Amiuiy, New Y&. S U W 1994).

- e

movement, the SanÜsiyya ans consexvative to the extent it did not recogaize the d e d o p e n t "the w d d had known since the advent of Isiam."

'

Research

dl

now hm covered various aspects of the order, such as reiïgiosity,

ethnic,

economic, and sochl issues, and politics. Howeveq only fm scholars have tned to see the interconnection between the doctrines and the political movement of the &a One scholar who has, Knut S. Vikor,

ccmcluded that the political movemmt was not the central aspect of the

Thus the histoy of the Sanùsiyya is dso the history of a Sufi bmtherhood which welded the edinic identity of the Sahafan bedouin and neighborhg

The movement

hm

also become m y focus

by

mon of its distinctme

Wahhabi doctrines, a unique blend that consïsted in maintainhg Sufi values and &g for a retum to the fundamental IslYnic sources, the Q 6 a n and Sunna. 1 propose in this thesis to mvestigrte why the Saniisiyya became

0

invohred in resisgog col- and what fàctom tended m strengthen and to

weaken the &stance. 1 propose to investigate die nature of the j h i 2 (hot war)' which was such a major feahire of the tesistance and to compare diis to sLnilnr nuieteenth-cenhirg A6ican movemmts which may have influencecl die

-

-

San*

the TijG Tokolor, al-Hajj Umy in west Sudan; the S-

M-d Alpud; the S&-IclÜsii, Mdpmmad ibn 'Abd

AU&

Hasan

in

7 AccordLig to Peters, modem theones ofjb<ul fidis into two categones; '%ose

comected Mth the pmpaption of Isiam and those c o l l p d with the idea of defend'

The nIst type! indude: 1) %trengtheniDg monotheism and destroyhg polytheism and false @S. Thip based on die nearlp identicai verses K 2: 193 a d K 839 (Fight them

und there is no pasecuticm and the reiigion is God's [entirely1). 2) pro- the Iskmic mission a&st those who stand in its wry. This way ais0

W

a h d e d piooecting fieedom of w o n . This & d o m of religion is to be nAked by removing aü obstacles that blodr fiee missionay activities. AU men must be fkee to heat the cnll of Islam and to

emb- without any -ce, oppression or persecutim on the pm of tix!

autharities or on the part of tbQr fdow-mm. This cause b Plso scripnirpny founded on

K 2: 193 aad K 8: 39 (5. . u d ttiere is no perseeution..

-3.

As fbr the causes connected with the iden of defeace, these are::l) repelling

lggression on Muslim lives a d pmperty in case OC ui actuai or eqected attack by enemy

f m , fo d e d on @ 191: "and tight in the way of God with those who oght pu, but

aggsess not"; 2) pieventing oppression and persecutim of M u s b outside the Cemrorg of Islam. This is closdy 1Liked with the idea of pcotedng fkedom of religion. It is baseâ upon [4: 7Sj: gIow is it with yw. that you do not fight in the -y of God, and for the men, women, and the cMdren who, behg abased, Say, 'Our Lord, bPng us forth h m this city d o s e people are d o e r s , and appoint to us a pmtector fiPm Tbee, d

appoint to us fiom Thee a helper"'; 3) retaliahg a g a k t a b d of pledge by the enerny. This is supported by @:

14:

"But if they break th& ooths afoer thPt covenant and &mst at your .etigion, then tight che leaders of unbelief; they ixwe no sacreù oaths, haply they d give O-." See, Rudolph Petes, JiU ni Chrricol d Mardsnr I s h

0

Sormlin;

the

Fâdir;-Bakk&Qadi;i Ma' alalCAiaain and his son Alpnad al-Hih

M Morocco; the Mahdi in sudana; and the Qàdiii 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iLi in Alge& in die period 1839-1847'.

To

answer the question, 1 intend to employ a histCKical appioach,

addresshg the probIem descriptively md analytically. This method will involve, respectively, colectiug, aiticiilnng and interprebing the data and M y , nanakg

the d t s in the €km of a complete storg.

The

thesis itself will commence with an introduction to the sources and r e s d mediods use4 and then move cm to the hrst chapter *ch

anB

pfovide an account of the political s e h g

in

Libya during the hrst three decldes of the 20"' centuq.

The

second chapter wiU investigate the institution of the gknr>ct and its d d e s , while the diiid

d

l

trace the forces worktig cm behalf of tesisiance. FFinany, in the conc1usim,I

d

dnar together the t h r d

of my argument and spithesize the results.

7.

Spencer T+imingham, The S@ Ordm in Lrlirs (Mord: Oxford University Press, 1973). pp. 240.241.

Rsphael Danzigex, %&d al-@& d L A & n h : O th F m b mid

THE

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

OF

LIBYA

IN

THE

EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY

A.

Peopie and L a ~ d

It is diflicullt to h d exact data on the population of Libya in the late Ottoman period, since a large put of the population consisted of n o d

12,01vÙd] and s e m i - n o 4 (m'ha) and because people hid the true number of M y members fhm census takers

in

order to avoid paying a larger tax bill

This being said, scholars have estimateci the population of Tripolitania for this pehd at betweetl800,oOO and 2 d o n and that of CyLenaica at between 190,000 and 500,000~

The population of Li+

in

the d y twentieth ceaturg was a mixnire of

Anbs, Betbers, Twegs, Dawada, Tebu and foreign minorities mch as Jews, Italians, BPtish, French, Spanish, Dutch, Greeks, Swiss, Austrians and

Fezzan and Cyrenaica. Berbers and Jews were predollljnandy setùed

in

the coastal Mediterraaean city of Tripolitania, dong with otha forriga minorities.

Agha Mohamed Barbar, Tdc T&h ( Z ~ ~ I I ) Racrr*Lsa th 1- III&=

Anbs, descendants of the

origmal

conquerors, iived almgside the indigenous Berbem in Cyasmica. Berba-speaking Tuaregs a d Daanda lived in the

mtehr in

Fezzan,

together with Tebu-speakbg slaves?

The

European mborities had th& own communi~es and mahtained

th&

oam laws administed

by

th& chiefi or coundois; however, they &O

intexacteci Mth other populaeims in the area, pacticularly for economic reasond Jews, on the other hand, led a difkrent

lik

compared to other minotities, being much more! mvolved

in

die commmity M which they 1ivd Not oniy did they hold administrative posts, such as those of local tithe and

tu collectors, but they also had a iepresentative in the city council and two

iepresentativcs

in the

vlhyet cotmd Rabbis

from

this

community played the same role as a district zbaykb, a&g as mediators between the community and

the aQniaistrati~n.~

3 Wrighf LraJrs pp. 24-25. The Tuareg m d y live in the oses of Ghat and Ghdaniesy the nrto of western Fezzan and parts of the Sahaca down to Tibuctu. Tb& dationsliip with noah Afncan sufi brotherhoods, UicLudiDg tbe Sankiyya may be

found in Henry Duveyxier, Lm Lartwaq & N d E x p h f i n 1 Sobmrt (Nendeki: Kraus Reprint, 1973), pp. 301-315. S a also, F m & Renne1 Rodd, Peqûb ofthe K i 1 (Loodoii:

h k m d h , 1926), pp. 48-49 ind 200.

The da&-slanned Tebu, who live in southem Cyrenaica and Fezzan, are beiieved to be descendeci frwn an ancieat Saharan race. See W-t, Ijbyo, p. 24. See

a h , Eise Fan- Li& &rAn#tqmm&tribr T i k (Berlin: RamPr Hobbhg 1933). The Dawada, the %dm eatiers," are said to be the spangei or esnotes

commupity, and have appanmdy lived for centuriesy in thiee oillages in the Ramla al- Damda between the Wadis AjaI nad Shatti in Western Fezzan. See W-t,

fiop,

p. 25.

Bedouin of Cpmaica, who phyed such a key sole

in the

rise lad development of the SanÜsiyya, were of mixed Arab-Baber stock.

The

Arab mbes B?nU F@l and Ban6 Sulaym took L i a in the deventh centurp- They

were both origjnaily kom Najd and of

Mu+

luleage, of which the

Ba&

Suiaym were the senior branch. They moved hto upper Egypt afier the downfiill of the Cammthian movement

in

kabia, out of which they had

ewolved. The 3anÜ ?@l mwed w e s m d to Tdp01itamia and Twiisia while the Ban6 Suiaym mainry setùed in Cyrenaica, where

di&

descendants have lived down to the present &y.

Meanwhile, the teibes of Cyrenaica belonged to one of two rmin groups, the Sa5di and the Mnnbu&. According to ~vans-Pridiard,' the Sasdi were diMded into taro mnM branches, the Jibarna and the l$ariibi, the Jibama tribes behg the 'Aw%$r, Magharba, 'AEd and 'Arziba, and the HGbi tribes the 'Abayda~ HZsa, 'Aiht J?âyid, Bara'asa and Darsa. These tribes Jived throughout Cyrtsnaica and shved the h d among diem

in

what they d e d

Ma&bu@~ used the km4 but did not have the right of ownership. Because

they were only few in number and therefore wed, each

dan

was tied to a p o w d Sa'Zdi tdbe7

In Fezzan, the main mbe were the AwGd Sulapiin, bie ~ a s ~ w n a , the Faqaha and the Maq* The A d d Suhymàn used to h e in the Süte area und about the middle of the nineteenth centurg. Dining

th&

wars with the Qlauamlis m 1831-1835, the tribe mwed to the south, where

they

occupied most of

Fezzan

and dien held the political power in that regon? The E & w b a

were the second krgest mie k e ; they

lild

once lived amund the Sabha- Mua& a r a but later invadecl the area northwest of Sabha where they

a

evmtually sedeci once the AwlZd Sula* came to occupy th& fomer

tefritory. The invasion of the m k m a forced the M e a tdbe in him to

move &om the Sabha region fiutha noah to the Huriij momtaias area.g In TPpo1itania province, the A d d

B k 3

and Wardilla tribes lived in the Wad* area

The

other tribes and

th&

locations were the AwGd Masallem, ai-HaWatim, the A d d Mu'uaf and a l - D d b of Tarhuna; al-

' . of M a s a l h FaGtL; AwGd al-Shaykh, Bathna, Awlad GEt, Fiijui

7 Evans-Pritdiard, Th SIII)YI; p. 51.

B&u, Tb, Tllmavku, p. 99.

and ' A ~ y k n of 2%- Z i y a m Ma'adân, and al-Qa&fà of Siae; al-@ba of GhadZmis and 11-Zuik; and ai-Rujiban and al-Md$Ünid in the

Jh

and Jabaî al-Gharbi or Nafka areas.lo

The

m i

way of life is one of adaptation to a &en environment In Cyrenaica, cow, sheep oz clme1 h d m moved

6nw

one place to another according to the season in order to obtain suffisent water and the basic needs of huwn beings and ananals. Nevertheless, a few

tnrd

groups stayed in the same place diniag whter and s u m m e r seascm, e-g., the Hadduth section of

~ara'asa"

Composed of 45 chief trïbed2 in the d y twentieth centuy, the BedouM of Cyrenaica *etainecl the c o ~ l l t n e accepted tribal understandmg of

w+, %nnelaBd," and Lw$? (&go bwyt ) as a mbd subdivision that constitutes an extended f?milg, the basic unit of tribal Me. This segment may

be described as a genealogical Iine or a politid mity.13 A collection of such

Leadership is d e d in CpaPica when a camp is moved e e r y ben

days or so in the a M y season- d e n decisicms k e to be made about plooghing.

when the rrgalp wa- of animais is to begin, d o is to use the water, h m and where men are to gather for communai p q e r in the rnoming of the Great FestM, and on a whoie i d e range of the other mundane occasions. It is no accident that the men who iead in these activiiïes are also the men who are out in h n t when moments of high dnail are emacted or d o direct activities

th& bases.I4

In a wider society, the Bedouin of Cyierilica built a systern of dationship both within and without their community tbt made it

possible for

them

to estabIish and maintain thek own g~v-ent.'~ This depended upon a network of dations between the various d g b ~ through whom they looked a&

th&

collective interests.

They were in an economic sense a self-supportkig people, ading th& home-made surplus pducts, e-g., homes, skins, wool, ctanfied buttes, suqIus badey, honey and wax, for other consumer p d s . Some cornmodities, sudi as

tea, q a q Pce, and doth had to be imported

fiom

other c0unt8es.'~ Due to hconsistency of rainfall and the distribution of water supplies, they became not pepsants, but shepherds." Consequeatiy, it was hq#y uiimal husbandry

*

Petexs, Th Br&&#? pp. 1-2 He argues against Evans-Pritchard's statement that the Bedouia of Cjremica were unable to pvem themsdves and that a for* pcmex should d e them.

17 This charactesistic distinguishes the Bedouin of Cyrenaica fFom their

counterparts in Pnkstine, SpSa. Iraq, Egypt and the Ahgbb, w h ~ peas5~1try is

a

that tumed the Pdi vwtation of the countrg into mil%, butteq meat, wool and

hides.I8

B.

Economy

D u h g the Ottoman administration, the Liiyan economy was based on agriculture, p a s t d s m , handicraft h d u s ~ e s and local and fore@ trade.

Agkultural activities were u n d d e n

only

in the smaü fertile area in the noah of the comtzy and in the -es of the hinterland, with the result that the countq's economy dependeci mainly on livestock breeding. Yet, it was the

iand of Cyreriaica that was cmsidered the most f d e temain

for

cereal dtivation

in

the entire country;

in

it was highiy p~oductive.'~ B d v , wheat and dates weze hanport export ~ommodities,~ along Mth caravans whicb commercially linked regions withbi trans-Shriran Afeca to one another and ultiarately to ~riiope? The Jewish population of conseal Tripolitania was

' 9 Anthony J. Caciiia, fibp ns&r rba S'd Oûbmnn O q t d m 1835-191 7 (ïripoik

Govemment Press, 1945), pp. 9198-

20 &ca a p o d hq, ostrich feathem and Ahican hides to Europe and i m p d Jilt, gun and gunpcnvder. Sa, Shulrri Ghanem, The Libpn Econamy b e f m hdepndence,'' S d d Eamwmù DdprnCIXt tf Li&, E . G E Joffe and ICS. M d a c b b , eds. (Cambridgeshire: Middie East and Nonh AEeican SNdies, 1982). p.

142

a

invohred in -de,

cnfts

and money-len* whereas the

Itlli?ns

wexe en@ in retail lad wholesde commerce md food proces~mg..~

The economy of the counbeg in the k t three decldes of the twentieth

centuy was dosely reiated to the s d and politid sphaes. This perid was

marked by the gradual implementation of a long term politico-ec0~1omic pioject established

by

die

Itllians

to develop th& own colony, since Liiya was

regarded by then as Itaiy's burth shore. The k t phase, between 1913 Md

1936, limed at creatiag an dkstyucture that would attract Idians to setde in Libya; this meant die construction of publie buildings, traasportation md commUNcation hQlities, ali of which reqitiied a huge investmenta The next step, duting the y- 1936-1942, was to be devoted to developing the

lgeidtural se- and piasuing land reclamation,

lvgely

in d e r to accommodate as muiy

Ialiui

peasants zs possiile.

- -

ggnincant trnde mures between eastem and western Libp For rhis reason, -le of

Libpa took advantage of the need foi semices on the part of the caravans and provideci camelsanddrivef$.

~3 Ghanem, 'The Libyan Economy,'' pp. 144-145. Pubiic buildings îike haspi&,

b a a t s ~ d s d i o o i s a s w d ~ khwatersupplies and ase\rapge sysmn f o n d the second most costiy Fourth Shore pmject afta the mqortation projects which indudeci rorrds, h y s nid ports, ie. 10.175 Won Irnliza l i n Sa h, Ciaudi0 G.

The economic aspects of the Fourth Shore Prqect resulted in s d disniminlkon that diffientiated westexners fian native fibyan in temis of e c o n h c and CMc

We,

Ita&ins and westemers enjoyed

d

fàcilities and

+vileges, whereas Arabs rermined on the land, under threat of seizure and

deportation to concentration camps,

if

they did not coopemte.

Meanwhile, the people of Tripolit2ai?, Cyrenaica and Fezzan were involved in different work. Most of the population of die Tripolitanian coast and its sunoundings, Jebel Gharbï, and a s dpart of the Cyr&can coast,

was agxicuitunl. Simple tmde in the fomi of buter was also c d on with qpidturai goods, e.g. grain for dates.

The nomadic people of Cyremica weze largely involved in herâîng camels and sheep and providing semices for cvravans. A pastoral economy

also meant the exdiuige of dairy products, e.g., milk and butte&, there ans also

exdi?age

of ne& (movable wealth), like go14 anirmls and

@dd

products but dso indiirting uiy item h t may be exchaqed for money and inherited m succession cm an individual bah. Lady, there was exchange of m% (prn~ezf~), landed property which is iahdted Smi~Itaneous~.~

In temi of colnmme, Libya tuded with Empan countries such as

whom the p r t s T-li and B e n g k i did d e commerce, not to mention the pozts of Misuzata, Khoms and Sirte. hi yan p d c t s such as i s e y for the

production of whisky and espart0 p s for the production of hi& quality pape wge mainly e x p d to Brihin,

C. Political Situation

A h the downfdl of the

Q

d

dynasty (171 1-1 835 A.D), the

land

of Libya came under direct ccmtrol from Istanbul, a situation that pbsted until1911. T b was fDîlowed

by

moie tEim a decade of Italian administration

iasttig mial the me of the secmd W d d

Wu.

H m Liiyans reacted to O t t m and ItPliui coatr01 diroughout this p d and what ideology they depended on to strengthen th& resolve will be discussed in the following

Pages-

î. Ott- Administration

L i

and the Ottoman Empire

in

the eady twentieth centurg have been d e s a i by one scholu as being "p-eis in pain,'' 25 since there wls litde

else

m

sham. The Ottomans were invited to Libya m the 187û's

in

ozder to

help the Libyans defend themselves +st continual attacks

by

the Spaaiards

ZI Shukti Gan- The Libyan Ecanomy befm Independence. S& Pnd

Eam& Detx@mat ofG&p, 4s. E.G.H. Joffe a d KS. M J a c b (ChmbiidgeshLr

a

and the Knights of St Joha

As

part of the Ottoman empire,

Li-

Wed

fear

advantages, a d the country hced more thna its

fair

share of m a t d depiivntion. Momover, because of the rernoteness of the cenbal govemment

M Istanbul, Ottoman ccmtrol over Libya was weak. Militay persornael a n s limited,26 and the ecmomic benefits matteactive. These conditions did not favour Ottoman attempts at goveming the county as a whole. It was a ChalIeage for Ottoman admMistrat01cs to coUect taxes h m the nomads and the inhabitants of the inteiJoq given

the

remoteness of certain regions and their mwillingness to bend to centrai authoity. A large part of the population paid no taxes by the EUne the Qarunnnlis came to d e the country.

The

growtlh of Westem capitalism howeve~ ais0 affected the provinces of the

Ottoman Empire.

The

Q d s were detctrmined to collect tax diredy and efficiendy, ma- no exemptions in thip regard Any =sistance by tribal chiefs was to be put down, wïth the result that some tribes chose to cooperate instead"

TI'herewere 1OOO Ottoman t m o p s in Cyrenaicain 1881, but the n u m k had dedined to only 300 by the Iate rineteenth centuy. With 20,ûûû men and modem equipment, the IalLns took oves Cyreoaica fiQr years later. Wright, L i h A M h

Hidllg, p. 21.

Ali Abdullatif Mmida, Tbs1Cllikiifig $.hakm Li& (Aibany, New Y& SUNY,

Undet Ottoman de,

L i

was divided into two administrative

regioneTripoli& and Cyrenaica. Tripolitania (rarabulw ol-Gbmb) was a

pfovMce (y&/#&l), with a govemor (d) assisted by a provincial board (mrk-i k m i yk). The governor's subordinates took the sank of m&mwfand

kuyrnuh and they, too, had

th&

r e g i d cound. The status of Cyrenâica (Barqa) changed s w d times. But f h m 1888 it was a district [mr;/tarmn$iEk) headed

by

a mrr/kuanfdirectly responsibIe to Istanbd In matters affecting the -y, posts, customs and judicial matters, the d of Tripolitania was also respoasible to Cyrenai~a.~

On the eve of the I t a b invasion of Lt'loya, the province of T+litania included four distdcts fiant&), each headed by a m&r;~~am$ under d o s e

juzisdicticm f d 21 subdismcts

(hi),

each headed by a h y m u h and 23

regions (nhye), each headed by a mt/uk The district of Cyrenaica hduded five

Between 1835 and 1911, there were two distinct periods of Ottoman govemment, the Hamidina and Young Turk regirnes, respectively. The administrative policy of both reghes towads the Libyan provinces was

g e n d y the same, p a r t i d y in the appointment of governom who were

a Rnchel Simon, Li& h m Oztommim u d N & n h : Tk 0-un Intrhmcnt

m

Ur L&m &i"g ih Ww Wtb IlJy (191 1-1919) @dn: Klaus Schwna Vdag, 1987), p. 22.

diuged

&th mzintaining Istanbul's authozity. Genedy, Ott- contml

1

over Libya was weak and this hr seved reasms. In the Hamidian pdod,

fo+

mstance, the gwemor's r e p t s on provincial administration were hvdly accurate, since govem01s tended to use these as a fonmi to express personal hatreds. Lata, under the Young T d s , hexe ans an absence of pariiunentaq

controJ, due to the brief existence of the constitutional-pariiamentar~r regime

(1908-1911) and the remoteness of the prince itselEm

Under Ottoman nik, development phns were d e , but fm were reatized, due to la& of fimds and t h e .

"

The chief development projects were focusecl on Beqhazi and Tiipoli- wtiere water networks, sewage and

rnuiupal de?nmg skcces, pmt devdopment, roads improvemen~ schooIs,

diaics, and public buildings were provided

The

authorities also arranged for councils to mvestigate the deveIopmeat needs of Libpns in die fields of industy, agriltrue, trade, colnmunicati011, education, h d t h and

transpoctation, but th& reco~endations were not implemaited3*

politid c ~ l l ~ a o ~ ~ l l e s s

through

the medium of the press, helped to in- the feeling of connection and identification with the Ottoman empire. 33

During di& presence in Liya, the Ottomans fotmd it riifficult to defend the provinces

from

the Ando-Egypb fones to the east, the French to the west and south and the Italjans' penetation to the noah. There weze some attempts at coopenbion with the SanÜsïyya to push h e m out, but

m q h a i temitory continued to be lost. The SanÜsiyp's decision to coUab0iate

with the Ottoman was based to some extent on cornmon dgious ties and the idea of Pan-Islaniism.

2. Tripolitdan Resistance and the Emeigemcce of the Republic of

Tripolitania

The Sanüsiyya, centered in Cyrenaica, were not alone in the Libyan &tance movernent the people of Tripoli& had &O taken steps towards

autonomy, although it was not recognized by any Western ~ o u n t r g . ~

Resistance to the IPliPas began in October 1911 Mth an

;creeiibr

Eorce that consisted of a s n d number of tribesmen and th& leaders, n m e of whom

34 The Ieaders of the Republic asM foa rrcognition h m the Itahq British,

French and U.S goveXIllllents. But I d y had a h d y secured diar dnims to mya

was well-eguipped. The Tripolitaniaas as a whoie were m fict divided d o two rmin gmups: tribesman and aty-dweliers, the lattez consisàng of traders,

' h i ' a n d the local piissaries of Ottoman descent The urbui-based p u p was ais0 divided Mto three political camps: those wîth the

d

to collabonte with the Idans, d e d the Efmm, anodier that fled to Egppt, Tunis or

T d e y ; and a third, "the wait and see group," whose members bided di&

tiw

until a arinner emergdu

The tribal l e a b induded SulaJrmàn al-Biûiï6 6rom the Nafika

ares,%

al-=di d-Mu~ta$r and Alpnad al-Mwayid of Tarbuna, and

'AG

TantÜsh of

the Tajura area. Together with a number of Ottmau foices they met the Itzliuishsevdbattle~duiingtheyevs1911-191~suchasindmt0~ll Tripoh, Shz' &Shah 'Ayn

Z k ,

and

Bk

Tub&. Although the resistance won seved victories, the Ilians had by 1912 succeeded in caphiriag Tripoli, Tajura,

Sidi

Bitd and 'Ayn Z a m The sesistance went on und the outbreak of

the First Wodd Wa., d e n it was Mteisupted

by

a pe&d of accord foliowing the Treaty of Ouchy-Lausanne, siped in October 1912

by

Itaiy, Bri& and

tbugh agreements with Engb<ad and France and th& allies in Wodd Wu L S e ,

a

the Ottoman Empire. One pvision of the mtyans k t the Sultan ans to

give fidl autonomy to the Tripolitanians. The Itllians &O offèred an amnesty to those who

had fought

against them. This treaty ended Ottoman sovereispty over the province and dieV f o d involvement m the resistance mmement.

However for the

rn~i&&k,

the Treaty had no sigdicance, smce they

had

dedved that they would persist M th& resismce until the withbrawal of I t d h forces. "

The yevs 1916-1920 mvked a decline, however, in this resistance. The

peLiod witnessed the British-Itdh Coalition, conflia among the ceibal leaders and the emergence of the Republic of Tripolitank

The

resistance mded because of its

hdc

of coordination whhin the provMce and vnong two

0th-

provinces; the withdrad of Ottcnnan's forces and since the ide? of Pan- Arabism and Pan-IslaWsm did not help much for it was simply used ter

political legitimacg.

The new Otto- administntor, Nuci Pasha, b v e d in Tripolitania

in

Sanikiyp's followezs m S h B Since the ernergence of Sayyid Mdpmmd Idns d-Sans M Cyrenaica, the Sufi order had adopted a diploznatic approah

to Britain and Itaiy, a poliq that was c k d e r e d by the leaders of the

T & o i i w resis*ince to be e t p i d e n t to collaboration. This event lwakened then to the necessitg of haviag

theL

own autonomous govertment> sepamte fiom di?t of the other province.

It was not und the autrnnn of 1918 th2t Tripolitanians uimessed the biah of the J1;1m&&ya a;/-Tmbk&ya (Repubic of Tripolitania). This occurred

at a time when the country was in tunnoil, both political and economic, and so it came as no surpiise that the newly independent country expired a h no more t h four years (19184922) of existence. The Republic had no intemational sponsor to htervene with the Itllians on its behalf; and once die

Fasusts came to poww in Rome in 1922, the Itahans took a much harsher 1Lie

The Republic of Tripolitania was the ficst f o d republic in the Arab wodd The dti* force behind its fomding was S u l a y d al-Bamd, who beforehand had wged that an autonomous Ibadi-Berber province be hnned in Jabiil &Gharb under the Young Tudrs. The chance to establish his oam

e

own pvernment came lfter the signjng of the Treaty of Lusanne by Itaiy and the Ottoman Empire in 1912. The treaty resulted

in

a division of provincial leadership, by *ch

Itzly

gaineci a fèw coastai tmms d e the Ottoman

issued a deCiSUSLtion to Libyans giving them

M

authmity over their own

a&riis

and r e gthe aight to aappoint an agent to protect Ottoman intemsts in the country.

A f k the signing of the Treaty of Lausame, the Ottoman

administrators and provincial leaders of Tripolitania met at the ' . a Congress to deade

th&

position on whether to accept autonomy under Ottoman protection or cooperate with Italy which had already dedared its annexatim of the country.

No

agreement; however, could be reached since the

participants in the congress had split nito two diflrerent interest groups; one

- wished _{to coopemte, the other to} resist The _first p u p _{was represented by}

Fvhat Bey d o was inclinecl to cooperate with Italy, d e the second group

was exemplified

by

Sulaymin d - B u ~ 6 who decided to resist.

Even so it took s e v d years before die Republic was offidly established Presideat Wilson's declanticm of his support for national self- detennination

in

Januay 1918 more or less convinced the

Anbs

d

Libyans

of their cight to libcnte themselves.

To

reaiize this goai, the people of Tripolitania chose a council to d e the pmvince, comisting of Sula-

6

a

Ba&ïi, R a n i a ~ al-~i~wa$di,* Alpad M@d of Tarhuna and 'Abd al-

Na%

Bilkhayr of W& 'Azzam Bey was the council's secretay, and a

twenty-four member advisory group was fonned to mpresent most of the

regions and interest of the tepublic The Um wu to acbieve

Ml

independence f h n Itllian d e by s&g agreement in prinuple to a Tripolitanian amirate.

Yet, they were

fPr

fiom United inter*, with the result that civil w u broke out When the problern of the province was bmught to

the

attention of

Rome, Tripolitanians hund support

fiom

CommUlZists, Socialists and

Besides the Ottcnnms, there wem tbree main &en powess involved m L i b p France, Great Bitah, and M y . O n the m e han& the French m d the

British had established more less

fimi

footholds in Egypt. AIgxk, and the S u h . On the other hand, Italy was stin tqing to find its c'pzomi~ed land" a ~ y o s s the sea. The active influence of Itdy

in

Libya duzing the hist half of traentieth centurg d s for fiutha discussion hem.

The

ambition to atmex the temitory of Libya was due to s w d seasms.

For Itaiy, Tripolit- was a p s t i o n of naticmal honor and of political and

eccmOinic basicaily &ce Tiipoli was die principai pxt and a majas

According to one schohr, Italy had three reasons for embylring on a policy of planned colonbation in Iibya once it had paded it.

Fht,

it hoped to d w e its own high population deasity. Second, it wanted to keep 0th- powets out

of Liya. Third, it needed a cheaper and more effective way ofgamisoning the

- -

42 Chdes Lapworth, T+d irad Yuaqg 1% @ ~ ~ d o s ~ Stephen Sud3 & Co., Ltd, 1912), 79.

43 The sedement was probably estabLished by the Phoenicians in the 7' centrnry BC as Ui'at kter Oea They established two o k colll~nerieial aties in Ijbya, Sabratha

and Leptis, and the busiest Mediterranean port CYbtlge. in Tun- Major mauufnchnal goods anre amid b m Tripoiitatnia to Cmal Aûica by way of hao great raites wfnch met up about 250 d e s south of Ghadames Md continued as a

sin& route to the R i v e N&. J o b Wright, Libya (Ltmdotx EmJt Benn La, 1969).

33-36. About the live of ancieat Libyuis see, Ebrwbku,

T&

Nri-y, tmm. George

a

terri- than by troops mmnaip a bvnn shore and pmvisioned almost entirely

ffom

the homeland? Fudemnore, Libya was ahrvays considered a potential base for the I t a i b peneatim of Afkica to Lake Chad and beyond4'

The It?lian politicai iuterest in Ottoman North Afica was puisued at hrst &O+ a poliq of ccpeaceul penetration" of the economic and s d

life of the teriltoq, and not by conquest, starting in the 1880s. The hanciai iastitution knawn as the 'ZBpico di Romas' was established m 1905 to begin an cceconomic penetratim" of the land The bank iavested in l o d agddture, light industrg, mineral prospecthg aud shipping..' New businesses were ficlmcced and controllhg intesest was acquUed in swnigand m many sectom of the expozt trade: cemais, wooi, ivorg, sponges and ostrich fathers. Erpedtions to pmspect

f a

minerah in T.ipolitauia were h d e d , and within a féw years the Banco di

Rorm

controlled much of the domestic and bneign bude of Libys. 47 ItaüM -de

had

also extendeci to all the main Ldbyan ports,

aad schode were opened to spread the Italiyi Iuigunge and cuIture. The

- - ..

Martin Moore, F-b S b (Lood011; George Roudedge & Sons, Ltd, 1940). pp.13-14. See also, Claudio G. Segré. F d b .S'hm (Chicap and London: Chicago

a

Banco di Rorm t h d e r opened its f b t bmch m Tripoli m 1907, and 0th-

branches

in

Benghazi and 0th- Iibyan t o n . The effècts of the Eumpean penetraticm of &ca on the Sahara

and

Sudan were p M y cornmerQal as

the traditional trade between Noah Afiica and the counmes south of the desert ans drawn aany westwards and southwards h g the new, secure

d w a y s and river mutes to ports on the Adantic CO-"

wth the advent of Fasasm, Itaiian colonial expansion entered a new phase which saw an end to the poliaes of m o u s

k'bernl

govemments.

The

rise of Benito Mussoltii m October 1922 mvked the beginning of a period of unabashed impermlism, best artidated in his statement: ^We Fascists h d the supreme unprejudiced CO- to

an

ouselves imperialistsP9 ~ h e

colonizatim of Libya, r e f e d to as a 'CfÔwth shore''

for

Italy, was m addition, considerd piut of "creating a avikatim" itself?

The significance t h the Fascists govemment attached to the conquest and the development of T i i a was obvious fkom the

hi&

rank of the governom appointed there in the 1920s and 1930s.

In

1925, Emilio de Bono, a leadex of the March on Rome that had brought Mussolini to power

ia

1922 succeeded Count Volpi in Tiipolitania, while RodoIfo Gnazni came to be

knawn as the c c m of ~Tripolitania. Theq

in

1929 the Mushal of Italy, Pietro BadogJio, was appointeci govemm of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, *ch had been mitd for bettet coordination of military ~ p e i a î i o a s . Under Badoglio's direction GinPlni completed the conquest of Fezzan.

Fascist Italy needed oiae years before it could completely conque

Iibya, a result achieved throiIgb the aggressive r d t a y tactics adopted by

Gmzhni These were iequired m view of the fierce iesistance o @ d

by

the

SanùZyp. G c u k i

had

come to the conclusion tb?t no Cyzenaican couid be m t e d not to be a supporter of the SanSyya.

H e

tried to exploit the

jealousies and hostilities

&ch

other tri'bes felt toward the fattes. However,

mited by language and

law,

libyans as a whole q p d e d the It?liaas as

Chnptef II

ROLES

OF

THE

SANÜSIWA:

THE CENTRAL POSITIONS

OF

SI~IDWGKS, 1 l g l ~ 1 ~ ~ 7 f i

AND

W - ' S

A Structure and OgMization of the SanÜsiyJra

adherents; iMwÜn, disciples; and 9 b g h . A m a n u 3 ieceived no prideges, aras

not Mitiated, so@t no blesshgs and couid iempni a foUowtz of other orders.

I&w& were initiateci, resided as a matter of a duty in the z&ya or the sufi

a

lodge, usuaJly

h?d

some sort of education and helped out +th the znzUs of the lodge d e n invited to do so. The chosen and most experienced i&& were

designated as zs(y&, and were entnisted with the administration of the q i a

Over aU was the Chief of the Oder, the d e r of al1 ~ j y a and

th&

~bgkbs.

The Chief of the Order anis lssisted by

his

councilors, the rnnqdhv, the w&i

and the A h @ These c o u a d k , d e d al-&~~a/(y, aaed on behalfof the Chief of the Order in the latter's absence, semed as the appoiated administrators aad judges in the name of the Chief of the Oider and attended

die

annual 5 d al-

Niwla k ZiPdeh. Stm&@zb: A SE-y ofA lkitdt Motrnl~nt % f i h , 2d d

0

A* f' and confe~ences, a m q o h ddes? The lvrlh? supemised the

m a t d and h a n d life of the qjbzym and received gifts and tithes on behaif of the order.

The

-fa

iesponsile for mdoctrination in the order supefvised

otha ru4- and tnnsmitted I the instructions of the Chief of the Oder to his subordinatesesP However,

hr

the purpcwe of this chapter, whieh surrreys

the roles of the Sanüsiyya, o d y the three piincipal elements of the brethien- ~hwkh,

i h k k

and ~&ym- ppin be considesed It shodd furdiemiore be noted that the title of sbg& bestowed on the head of the ~@vyu ought not to be cmfbsed with the same tide bome by traditionai &bal leadeq ais0 r e f d to as $bq&.

0

The

_{qaXvryu s@&}

had

_{two fimctions ia the eyes of the .*cf= one}

temponl and the other spirituaL The k t devolved fkm

his

position as

anministator of the

z&y~

which was

his

piimarg fuaction.

This

role extended

to acting as an lgmt of unification for tn%esmen, a task made necessay by the

incessant intra-tribai conflicts that arose o v e legai and economic matters. h d

attached to Sayyid Mdymmad aiaiMiahdi nl-Sanz: was an i d d insaniment of

peace.

T h e

second fundon stemmed

feom

his duty as a dgious patmn to

his

disaples. In this resp- a $hg&, with the occasional assistance of his ikbüh,

served as the inr* of d d y payer or as a teacher. Srnethes, one of the i&w& migtit read "ieligous WiSitiqp'' to a p u p of people.5 Here, the tenn 'gikbbt%k"

is used

in

a bioader sense, that is to say all adhemnts (hmt&) and disaples

f i b & ) of the S a n e a .

*

This idea was aiarent in diffémnt regions of the Sudm Chad and Libya at

aimost the sarne the. In the case of the San* it ans developed not isy Say$ M W al-Mahdi al-Sans himsel€ but by Sayyid Aipad &Shnfif, although it was aiticized by &Mahdi al-SanÜZ See, Horeir, p. 112, Ziadeh, S ' b , pp. 52-56. M mAshbab, a i - ~ M d-S- (i'ripok Mafia'at Ma$, 1952). pp. 87-99. Fos the Sudanese Mahdi, see P M H& Th M u W Slra? rir the S& 11814898,206 ed. (Oxfd:

Qvendon Press, 1970).

5 Nach- recosded that S a n s i .Rsd a rrtigious mt to the Kuka people

of Wada'i on certain evenings of Rimqlb. See, Gustav Nrhrikl, S h and S d , uans. Aiian GB. Fisher and Humprey J. Fisher (Berlreley md Los ADgeles: Uaitrersity of Catifornia Press, 1971), v. 4, p. 12.

The tebal breakdm of SPnÜsigya membership indodeci mJlinly the Bedouins, the Tu- aud the Tubus. Prominent sub-tribes of the Tunregs induded the Awpelimmiden, Hoggass (Ahaggar), Asgus and Kelowh. According to Furlong, A s p

and the Kelowis weze enthusiastic fohwefs of the San&+, esprmlly those who d e d

in Air and Ghat See, Chades Wellicigton Furlong, Tda Gntary n> th S a k ObsCrCCZIiiOlls radEqknbw in T*b (New Yodc Chades Scr%nex's Son, IgOg), pp. 93-94.

W, DwepBec Wtes that the mbe was krgely spht betweea the S a n s and the Tir& orciers. See, Henrg Dwepiex, L a Lcrbmq <II* N d E#mzz%n dic S h

Schoiars give dBkent opinions about the number of SanÜsiyya q&&asy followers, and the areas where this ordm s p d

Since

th& r e s d was conducteci at different times, howevec, di& h&gs tend to vug. At the htest

stage of its development, the d e r had spread throughout North f i c a , the

Sahel, and b o n d into large parts of sub-Sahaam Afnca. In 1883, on the other

hand, d e n Duv+er pubLished

his

fbdings, there were 121 s*yas distebuted in Eggpt

(17

x+us), European Turkey (l), Asian Turkey and the WjÙ (2), Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (66), Tunisia

(IO),

Algeria (8), Momcco

(S), and other parts of Afiica (12)? Later, Evans-PPtchard reporteci that the nuinber had kicreased to 146 x e m , spmad throughout Egypt (31 qkya), the I J i j j (17), Libya (84) and Sudan (14). 'O Zi?deh,

for

hie part, dismisseci repoa~

Spaulding and Lddwien Kapteijns. An I z U Ahma: 'A0 DwkÜ a ~ d th S e a , 7906-

1916 (Evanston, Iilinois: Nosthwestern Univexsîty Press, p. 16.

Tubu, Tbbu or Tebu is the name used inteschaqpb1y by s d schdars to descill'be this tdx. A c d g to Duvepier, d o caOs them Toubou, th- were six operathg among tbis people mentioued in "other parts of AfXca'V M a , the Tubu of Wada'i, was suid to have been the k t mong the TU~US. Kmùa or Kada,

ICoyo, Nghmip, Inpa and Kodem, to accept Islam. See, Gustiv Nachtigd, S Aa d Sruclitrr, p. 164.

See, Heny Duv- Lrs T idv N d ~ h n a h u rhu Sahm (Nendeln:

KFUU Reprint, 1973, hrn published in 1864), pp. 300-310.

lo EX. Evans Pntd?ard, Th Sd $ C m (Odord: aarrndon Press, 19%).

O

dr?t the SanÜsiyya

had

established q&jus as f k mua. as South East A&

especdy Indoneska, describkg

diem

as only an exlggeratim." In

ficZ

the

Sanüsiyya

had

extended its inauence to Indmesia, althougti

for

political

reasonq it evolved into 1&yya.'* Therefme, it is the IdGiyp., not die SanÜsiyya that is recogpized

by

the IndoneSinn Couacil of Tm;;ïù2 (Jamyiyyah Ablith ThOJJqoh &Muytabamh an-Nahdiiyyah) m its decisicm dated Apd 19,

1981, and

in

its

list

of the forty-he r e c ~ s p i z e d . ~ a . ' ~

T.W Arnold nfw to Riddel d S n d H-je as sa* "the reügious oders rnoreov- have extendecl their orarniption to the Maia. AEchipelsgo, men the yo-t of them -the SmüQylb

-

hding adhaeng ia die most distant ialznds, one of the signs of the influence beiog the adoption of the name Sans by many Malays, d e n in Mecca they @ th& native fm Atabic names." Ziadeh, S*, p. 103.

12 Nerrertheless, Sagyid Ahmad S monce empioyed Hap Mu?mmPd Assad, h m

the BUgtrese ' x k 3 a s his s~cretay for some tirne befm his retum to south S u l d in

1928 and them appointeci him the MW&CI. Wowever, it seerns that he did not s p d the

ta@u. See, Muh. Hatta Waiinga, uKiyai Hnp Muammaci Assad Hidup dan Perjuangannya" (BA. thesis, FOCufq of Letrere,

IAIN

Alauddin, Ujung Pandang, 19ûû).

In the eady 30's. 'Abd al-Fattah anis also repmted to h?Pe gwie to see S?ygid

Alpaad S U w h o then p e him as &a to mach a d s p d the docbeiaes of the .*a to ïndonesia, Shaiif also told him a kh@u had ?Lady been sent a> South Sulawesi. Tiateq Kiai 'Abd al-Fattah renamed the .lmju as 1- This tnnstomil9on was, a c w d n g CO van Bruinessen, a> psevent politicai pmblems whh the Dut& d o

might have associatexi the , M a wib the the SanÜsiya iesiStance rnovement in Libp The small scal-a is now headed by Kini 'Abd ai-Fatth's son, Khi Dahian, centend

in P- TaPitmalaya (arrst Jaen) and spmad in s e v d locai branches. See, Mvtin van Bniinessen, KI&& Kwag: Pa- dm Tm& (Bandung: MiPn, 1995). p. 202.

l3 See. Idvoh 'AligyPh, TsOnpob Mw4akrrb

N

,

&marang: Toba Puma,

ad), p. 38.

Wtth @i to the importuice of the q&ym themselves, Trimiagtiun

writes, "the

xpijiu

was a center for mbd unity and tbis gave it strength to

the Sanüsiyya organization, as Evans-Pritchard put it:

UPülre the H d s of moat Isiamic Ordem. *ch have rapidly dkhtegcateà

into autommous segments without contact and cornmon ditection, diey have been abIe to maintah this orgrniPtion intact and keep control of it. This they arw able to do by co-odnating the lodges of the O& to the tcibal stnicture.15

In a typical camp1ex, there were a mosque, schoolrooms, guest-

iooms, houses for the ~&kb of the and his M y , zooms fbr teach-

and disciples

and houses for iMwim, d e n t s aad serants, and th& families, as

a

w& os, sometimes, a garda and a cemeterg. l6 A A&+ initdly was built for

the purpose of digous, e d u ~ a t h d , @cultural and s d actMaes.

To

$Z&

It ans in the @niyw of the S a n e a , in my opinion, h t "ethosu md

"arodchrid'

"

met and were manifested as a netwodc of social, religious,

commercial, judid, m i b q and political activities supefvised by the sbayk%rs.

Ziadeh explains that

"...

a ~iiay4 as conceived by the Grand S a n s w?s a

place for hard wodr, toilsome hbor a d productive efEmt Sansyah forbids begging and abhors lazy

Me.

Woig is essentiai, and cooperati011 and fidl

cotfabotation are the bases of SmUG a~tkity."'~

The trao most kapottant aspects of the Sankiyya's mie were neiigious

ap-

m

have inspirecl a S u n 6 anci moderate sufisrqm while the latter was the

most miginal part of the Saniisiyya progam.n

l. D