Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 4 [1996] 2 6 –3 2 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]
Marketing schools and consumer choice
Janet A. Harvey
Department of Educ ation, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK andHugh Busher
Division of Educ ation, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UKStates that the concept of marketing is regarded with suspicion by many in educa-tion because of its commer-cial implications. Marketing is seen as a potential tool for the application of market forces and is therefore regarded as ethically undesir-able. Argues that the methods and ideology of commercial marketing, if properly under-stood and correctly applied by professionals in education, can be benefi cial rather than harmful, and may be impera-tive for schools and colleges wishing to attract students and to offer them the most relevant provision.
What can marketing of fer
education?
E d u ca t ion is a ser v ice t o cu st om er s or clien t s, a lt h ou gh t h a t st a t em en t r a ises q u est ion s a b ou t t h e n a t u r e of t h e ser v ice a n d t h e id en -t i-t y of i-t s con su m er s/ clien -t s. Ma r k e-t in g in a n y sp h er e is con cer n ed w it h t h e q u a lit y of t h e r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een p r od u cer s a n d con su m er s. As a con ce p t m a r k et in g is n ot t h e sa m e t h in g a s m a r k et for ces or m a r k et a ccou n t a b ilit y. P et ch [1] felt t h a t m a r k et a ccou n t a b ilit y is m a r k ed m or e by con fr on t a -t ion -t h a n by -t h e co-op er a -t ion d esir a ble in ed u ca t ion b et w een sch ools a n d t h eir st u d en t s a n d p a r en t s.
Wr a gg[2] exp r essed st r on g h ost ilit y t o ed u -ca t ion b ecom in g su b ject t o m a r k et for ces. Ma r k et in g su b su m es a n id eology t h a t m a k es t h e n eed s a n d w ish es of a n or ga n iza t ion ’s cu st om er / p u r ch a ser s m or e im p or t a n t t h a n it s m em b er s’ p r efer r ed m et h od s of wor k in g. It ca n a lso a p p ea r t o d efi n e t h e va lu e of a p r od u ct or ser v ice solely in t er m s of w h a t p u r ch a ser s a r e p r e p a r ed t o p ay for it a n d t h er efor e t o en cou r a ge p r ov id er s of ser v ices, su ch a s sch ools, t o con sid er q u est ion s of cost of ser v ice m or e im p or t a n t t h a n et h ica lly r ou n d ed p r ocesses of p r a ct ice. Tea ch er s fi n d t h e com m er cia l va lu es of com p et it ion a n d in d iv id u a l ch oice in com p a t ible w it h ed u ca -t ion a l goa ls of p r ov id in g eq u t a ble op p or -t u n i-t ies for i-t h e lea r n in g a n d d evelop m en i-t of a ll p eop le. Ma r k et in g t h eir p r ofession a l ser v ices a p p ea r s t o cr ea t e a t en sion b et w een a n em p h a sis on socia l va lu es w h ich p u t t h e good of t h e in d iv id u a l a b ove t h a t of societ y a n d t h ose socia l va lu es w h ich give p r efer en ce t o t h e gr ea t est good of t h e gr ea t est n u m b er of p eop le in a com m u n it y.
T h is p a p er con sid er s h ow a d et a iled u n d er -st a n d in g of m a r k et in g ca n a llow t ea ch er s t o im p lem en t t h eir ed u ca t ion a l va lu es m or e su ccessfu lly w h en fa cin g t h e p r essu r es of com p et it ion a n d p a r en t a l ch oice, w h et h er in in d e p en d en t sch ools or in st a t e sect or ed u ca -t ion su ch a s -t h a -t b r ou gh -t a b ou -t by ed u ca -t ion le gisla t ion in t h e UK sin ce 1980.
Marketing a service
In t h e com m er cia l wor ld m a r k et in g h a s evolved over t h e la st h a lf-cen t u r y, t h e focu s of in t er est ch a n gin g fr om con su m er good s in t h e 1950s t h r ou gh con cer n w it h in d u st r ia l m a r k et s in t h e 1960s t o a t t en t ion on n on -p r ofi t or ga n iza t ion s a n d t h e ser v ices sect or in t h e 1970s a n d 1980s. Recen t t r en d s t ow a r d s r ela -t ion sh ip m a r k e-t in g, w i-t h i-t s r ecogn i-t ion -t h a -t m a r k et in g a ffect s a fi r m ’s em p loyees a n d su p p lier s a s w ell a s it s cu st om er s[3], p a r t icu -la r ly su ggest t h e r eleva n ce of m a r k et in g t o ed u ca t ion .
T h e Br it ish In st it u t e of Ma r k et in g d efi n es m a r k et in g a s:
…t h e m a n a gem en t p r ocess r esp on sible for id en t ify in g, a n t icip a t in g a n d sa t isfy in g cu st om er r eq u ir em en t s p r ofi t a bly [4,p. 3].
In m a n u fa ct u r in g in d u st r y t h is w a s
exp r essed a s t h e fou r P s: p r od u ct , p r ice, p r o-m ot ion a n d p la ce. P r od u ct s w er e t h e good s sold ; p r ice h a d t o cover t h e cost of m a n u fa c-t u r e a n d a r ea son a ble m a r gin of p r ofi c-t ; p r o-m ot ion a dver t ised t h ose fea t u r es w h ich d is-t in gu ish ed a p r od u cis-t fr om iis-t s com p eis-t iis-t or s; p la ce r efer r ed t o t h e p oin t of sa le a n d t h e d ist r ibu t ion n et wor k w h ich su p p lied it . It w a s b elieved t h a t t h ese fou r in gr ed ien t s n eed ed t o b e b a la n ced t o for m a “m a r k et in g m ix”[5].
Jane t A. Harve y and Hugh Bus he r Marke ting sc ho o ls and c o nsume r c ho ic e
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 6 –3 2
t h e cu st om er s t h er e is a n eed for a ll st a ff t o b e aw a r e of a n or ga n iza t ion ’s p olicies a n d p r e-fer r ed p r a ct ices[7].
Ru sh t on a n d Ca r son [8] d efi n ed t h e ch a r a c-t er isc-t ics w h ich ser v ice in d u sc-t r ies h ave in com m on , a n d w h ich d ist in gu ish t h em fr om m a n u fa ct u r in g in d u st r y, a s in t a n gib ilit y (ser v ices ca n n ot b e id en t ifi ed by t h e sen ses); h et er ogen eit y (t h e h u m a n elem en t in volved in t h eir p r ov ision m ea n s t h ey ca n n ot b e st a n -d a r -d ize-d ); p er ish a b ilit y ; a n -d in se p a r a b ilit y (t h e p r ov ision of a ser v ice ca n n ot b e se p a -r a t ed f-r om it s con su m p t ion ). T h ese fa ct o-r s led Cow ell[9] t o a d d t h r ee fu r t h er P s – p eop le, p r ocess, a n d p h y sica l ev id en ce t h a t a ser v ice is b ein g d eliver ed – t o t h e or igin a l “fou r P s” m a r k et in g m ix. T h e la st ca t e gor y h e m en -t ion s in clu d es -t h e cu l-t u r e a n d en v ir on m en -t in w h ich a ser v ice is d eliver ed . Ba t eson [10] st r essed t h e im p or t a n ce of m a n a gin g t h is effect ively, a p oin t w h ich ca n h a r d ly b e over -st a t ed in t h e con t ext of sch oolin g.
Service characteristics in
education
Ru sh t on a n d Ca r son [8] r e ga r d ed in t a n gib ilit y a s t h e sin gle m ost im p or t a n t d iffer en ce b et w een good s a n d ser v ices. Gr ay [11, p. 14] p oin t ed ou t t h a t t h er e a r e va r y in g d e gr ees of in t a n gib ilit y, w it h ed u ca t ion b ein g:
r igh t a t t h e “in t a n gible” en d of t h e sp ec-t r u m , w iec-t h few if a n y ec-t a n gible p r od u cec-t s n or m a lly p r ov id ed a s p a r t of t h e ser v ice.
In t a n gib ilit y m a k es it d ifficu lt for p ot en t ia l clien t s t o a ssess t h e q u a lit y of a ser v ice, exce p t by look in g a t t h e t a n gible elem en t s a ssocia t ed w it h it , w h et h er it b e t h e t id in ess a n d em p t in ess of d u st b in s in r efu se collect ion or exa m in a t ion r esu lt s a n d st u d en t b eh av -iou r in sch ools. Lovelock [12] p oin t ed t o t h e im p or t a n ce in ser v ice in d u st r ies of t h e cu t om er ser v ice fu n ct ion t o en su r e t h a t cu s-t om er s’ n eed s a n d exp ecs-t a s-t ion s w er e m es-t effect ively.
On e of t h e m a jor p u r p oses of m a r k et in g, t h er efor e, is t o exp la in t o p ot en t ia l clien t s t h e ser v ices or p r od u ct s t h ey a r e a b ou t t o p u r -ch a se, a s w ell a s t r y in g t o p er su a d e t h em t o bu y a p a r t icu la r b r a n d . Ma r k et in g fu n ct ion s in clu d e cu st om er ed u ca t ion a s w ell a s sa les. Sch ools, for exa m p le, ca n exp la in w h a t op p or -t u n i-t ies a r e offer ed -t o s-t u d en -t s, su ch a s h ow a n d w h a t t h ey a r e t a u gh t . Gr ay [11] t h ou gh t t h a t t h e p r e p a r a t ion a n d p r om ot ion of a n in st it u t ion ’s m ission st a t em en t , t h e u se of a logo, a n d ca r efu l p u blic r ela t ion s wou ld h elp p a r en t s a n d st u d en t s t o id en t ify t h e p a r t icu -la r ser v ices offer ed . P a r d ey [13] su ggest ed t h a t p r ocess or m et a -va r ia bles, su ch a s eva lu a t ion of t h e en v ir on m en t s w it h in w h ich a ser v ice is
p r ov id ed – h ow, for exa m p le v isit or s t o a sch ool a r e w elcom ed – h elp clien t s t o eva lu a t e t h e q u a lit y of ser v ice t h ey r eceive.
T h e p r ov ision of ser v ices t en d s t o b e a h et -er ogen eou s p r ocess. To som e ext en t t h e q u a l-it y of p r ov ision d e p en d s on t h e p er son a l sk ills a n d a t t r ibu t es of ea ch p r ov id er w it h in a n or ga n iza t ion w h o is in con t a ct w it h t h e clien t s. H om ogen eit y of ser v ice, u n lik e t h a t of good s on a p r od u ct ion lin e, is d ifficu lt t o a ch ieve sin ce t h e p eop le in volved , p r ov id er s a n d clien t s, a r e a ll d iffer en t . Tea ch in g a s a cr a ft is d e p en d en t on t ea ch er s’ in t er p er son a l sk ills a n d t h e socia l in t er a ct ion s of gr ou p s of st u d en t s. E ven if a cu r r icu lu m is p r escr ib ed , a s it h a s b een in st a t e sch ools in E n gla n d a n d Wa les sin ce 1988, h ow st a ff t ea ch a n d h ow st u d en t s r esp on d t o t h eir p ed a gogy w ill va r y.
Sch ools, lik e ot h er ser v ices, p r ov id e som e-t h in g w h ich is p er ish a ble a n d w h ich , in ie-t s cr ea t ion , is la r gely in se p a r a ble fr om t h e in t er a ct ion s of t ea ch er / p r ov id er s a n d st u -d en t / clien t s. T h e p r ocess of e-d u ca t ion is p er ish a ble b eca u se it is “con su m ed ” a t lea st p a r t ia lly a t t h e p oin t of d eliver y [6]. In ed u ca -t ion , a lesson m issed by a n a b sen -t s-t u d en -t ca n n ot b e r ecr ea t ed id en t ica lly, a lt h ou gh it s con t en t m ay b e con veyed . Lin k ed t o t h is p er -ish a b ilit y is in se p a r a b ilit y : t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g a r e in ext r ica bly in t er t w in ed . To com p lica t e m a t t er s fu r t h er, st u d en t s u su a lly in t er a ct w it h on e a n ot h er in com p lex w ay s d u r in g lesson s, h elp in g on e a n ot h er t o lea r n a s w ell a s lea r n in g w it h t h e t ea ch er. E ffec-t ively, sffec-t u d en ffec-t s b offec-t h p r od u ce a n d con su m e t h e ed u ca t ion a l p r od u ct , k n ow led ge. Som e ser v ice in d u st r ies t u r n in se p a r a b ilit y t o t h eir a dva n t a ge by fea t u r in g t h e p r ov id er s a s p a r t of t h e b en efi t of t h e ser v ice[11]. Sch ools ca n p r om ot e t h e p a st or a l ca r e, ext r a cu r r icu -la r a ct iv it ies a n d a ca d em ic q u a lifi ca t ion s of t h eir st a ff a s va lu a ble fea t u r es, a t t r a ct ive t o st u d en t s a n d t h e loca l com m u n it y.
Identifying the client customers of
education
Jane t A. Harve y and Hugh Bus he r Marke ting sc ho o ls and c o nsume r c ho ic e
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 6 –3 2
a n d id en t ifi ed clien t / cu st om er n eed r e ga r d -less of t h e cost s in volved ? To w h a t ext en t sh ou ld t h e p r ice m ech a n ism , w h ich is t h eor et ica lly su p p osed t o eor e gu la t e m a eor k et s, d et eeor -m in e b ot h t h e q u a lit y of p r ov ision a n d w h ich cu st om er s r eceive w h a t q u a lit y of p r ov ision ? F u r t h er m or e, w h o p r ecisely a r e t h e cu s-t om er s of ed u ca s-t ion ?
In ed u ca t ion , id en t ify in g t h e cu st om er s or clien t s, i.e. t h e p eop le w h o b en efi t fr om it , is p r oblem a t ic. Gr ay [11] n ot ed t h a t clien t s a r e oft en lon g-t er m u ser s of su ch t h in gs a s t h e p er son a l ser v ices of a law yer, w h er ea s cu s-t om er s s-t en d s-t o h ave b r ief, on e-off con s-t a cs-t s w it h p r ov id er s w h en p u r ch a sin g good s or ser v ices. On t h is a r gu m en t sch ools wou ld seem t o h ave clien t s r a t h er t h a n cu st om er s. St u d en t s a n d t h eir p a r en t s u su a lly wor k for a lon g t im e w it h t h e sch ools w h ich t h e st u d en t s a r e a t t en d in g, a s w ell a s t a k in g p a r t in t h e cr ea t ion of t h e lea r n in g p r ocess. Dist in gu ish -in g b et w een clien t s a n d cu st om er s -in t h is w ay is h elp fu l bu t d oes n ot a d d r ess t h e d ee p er p r oblem s of u n d er st a n d in g for w h om t h e ed u ca t ion ser v ice is con st r u ct ed , i.e. t o w h om it is a ccou n t a ble, even if it is clea r t o w h om t h e ser v ice of sch oolin g is d eliver ed . It d oes n ot a ssist sch ools t o d ecid e h ow t o m a r k et t h em selves.
P et ch [1] r e ga r d ed p a r en t s a s t h e con su m er s of ed u ca t ion . Ma cb et h [15] su ggest ed t h a t t h er e a r e fou r gr ou p s of p eop le w h o b en efi t fr om t h e ed u ca t ion sy st em :
1 t h e p u p il (w h o r eceives in st r u ct ion ); 2 t h e p a r en t (w h o d ele ga t es a u t h or it y over
t h e ch ild t o t h e t ea ch er );
3 t h e ow n er s of a sch ool, w h et h er in d e p en -d en t or a st a t e a u t h or it y, w h o em p loy t h e st a ff; a n d
4 societ y a t la r ge.
H e d efi n ed t h e fi r st gr ou p a s “con su m er s” a n d t h e secon d a s “t h e sch ool’s p r im e clien t s”[1, p. 16] b eca u se in t h e UK t h ey a r e le ga lly r esp on sible for t h e ed u ca t ion of t h eir ch ild r en u n t il t h e a ge of 16 yea r s.
An im p lica t ion of t h e p r eced in g p a r a gr a p h is t h a t sch ools sh ou ld m a r k et t h em selves a s m u ch t o t h eir p u p ils a n d p ot en t ia l p u p ils a s t o t h eir p u p ils’ p a r en t s, b ot h b ein g p er ceived a s im p or t a n t clien t gr ou p s. T h is is a n im p or -t a n -t p er sp ec-t ive w h ich h a s r ecen -t ly b een given su p p or t by t h e wor k of Ru d d u ck et a l.[16] w h o com m en t on t h e a ccu r a cy a n d p er sp ica cit y of st u d en t s’ v iew s of sch oolin g. We wou ld su p p or t t h is con t en t ion , r e ga r d in g st u d en t s, of w h a t ever a ge, a s t h e d ir ect p r i-m a r y clien t s of ed u ca t ion , a n d d eei-m in g t h e ot h er st a k eh old er s – p a r en t s, em p loyer s, societ y a t la r ge – t o w h om a sch ool a lso h a s t o m a r k et it self, t o b e it s secon d a r y b en efi cia -r ies.
St u d en t s exer cise va r y in g d e gr ees of con t r ol over t h eir ch oice of ed u ca t ion a l in st it u -t ion s a -t d iffer en -t a ges. Al-t h ou gh m os-t p a r en -t s select a ch ild ’s p r im a r y sch ool, a t a ge 11 or 12, ch ild r en m ay exp ect t o con t r ibu t e t o t h e d eci-sion [11]. Web st er et a l.[17] fou n d t h a t 69 p er cen t of fa m ilies in t h eir su r vey on secon d a r y sch ool select ion t h ou gh t t h eir ch ild ’s op in ion s “ver y im p or t a n t ”. St illm a n a n d May -ch ell[18] a n d West et a l.[19] a lso fou n d t h a t p a r en t s t ook sign ifi ca n t a ccou n t of t h eir ch il-d r en ’s v iew s b efor e m a k in g a fi n a l ch oice. On t h e ot h er h a n d , w h a t ever in fl u en ce ch ild r en h ave over t h eir p a r en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of a sch ool[20], p a r en t s a r e st ill t h e m a jor, if n ot t h e sole, ed u ca t ion ch oice m a k er s for m ost ch ild r en d u r in g t h eir yea r s of com p u lsor y sch oolin g. St u d en t s a r e lik ely t o m a k e t h eir ow n d ecision s a b ou t p ost com p u lsor y ed u ca -t ion , a l-t h ou gh “p a r en -t s a r e a lso in fl u en -t ia l, bu t m ay h ave ver y d iffer en t exp ect a t ion s fr om t h ose of t h eir offsp r in g”[21, p. 109].
Ign or a n ce a b ou t t h e con su m er ’s en v ir on -m en t is on e of t h e -m a jor p r oble-m s fa cin g ser v ice in d u st r ies[6] a n d ed u ca t ion is n o exce p t ion . Ma n a gin g t h is ext er n a l en v ir on m en t is on e of t h e m a in ch a llen ges of m a r k et -in g[4]. Ma r k et -in g h elp s a n or ga n iza t ion t o id en t ify h ow a n d w h y it s clien t s ch ose it a n d so t o a ct m or e effect ively t o a t t r a ct clien t s t o it . Im p licit in m a n y m a r k et in g p r ocesses is t h e u n p r oven a ssu m p t ion t h a t clien t s, given a d eq u a t e k n ow led ge, w ill a lw ay s m a k e r a t io-n a l ch oices w h ich m a xim ize t h eir b eio-n efi t s. T h is p r esu p p oses t h a t clien t s h ave a ch oice, w h ich is n ot a lw ay s t h e ca se w h er e t h er e is on ly on e sch ool ser v in g a p a r t icu la r a r ea or p a r en t s a r e u n a ble t o a ffor d t h e a lt er n a t ive (p r iva t e) sch oolin g, if it exist s. It a lso a s-su m es t h a t in cr ea sin g t h e fl ow of in for m a t ion t o id en t ifi ed clien t gr ou p s, t h r ou gh sch ool p r osp ect u ses, for exa m p le, w ill n ecessa r ily in cr ea se t h e st u d en t in fl ow su fficien t ly t o cover t h e cost s of exp en d it u r e on p u blic r ela -t ion s; a ga in , -t h is a ssu m p -t ion is u n p r oven . In d eed , m a n y h ea d t ea ch er s p oin t t o t h e d elet er iou s effecelet of elet h e coselet s of ela b or a elet e m a r k eelet -in g exer cises on t h eir bu d get s for cu r r icu lu m p r ov ision , on e of t h e cr it er ia by w h ich p a r -en t s ju d ge t h e su ccess of a sch ool.
Alt h ou gh p a r en t s gen er a lly t en d t o con -sid er t h e sa m e b r oa d r a n ge of fa ct or s, p r ior t ies va r y fr om su r vey t o su r vey. T h is in d i-ca t es t h e im p or t a n ce of ever y in st it u t ion exp lor in g it s ow n cu st om er b a se in or d er t o u n d er st a n d it s sp ecifi c n eed s a n d w a n t s[7]. J oh n son [22, p. 28] ou t lin ed t h e m a in ed u ca t ion a l ch oices w h ich sch ools ca n offer p a r -en t s:
Jane t A. Harve y and Hugh Bus he r Marke ting sc ho o ls and c o nsume r c ho ic e
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 6 –3 2
or n on r esid en t ia l sin glesex or coed u ca t ion a l; a llt h r ou gh or a ger ela t ed ; in st it u -t ion a l or h om e-b a sed .
For p r im a r y sch ools, t h e P low d en Re p or t [23] fou n d t h a t loca t ion , r eligiou s et h os, wor d -of-m ou t h r e p or t s a n d p r ior fa -of-m ily con t a ct s w it h a sch ool w er e a ll sign ifi ca n t fa ct or s a ffect in g ch oice. Som e p a r en t s a lso con sid er ed ed u ca -t ion a l s-t a n d a r d s a n d -t h e a -t m osp h er e of -t h e sch ool t o b e im p or t a n t .
Wh e n ch i ld r e n t r a n s fe r fr om p r i m a r y t o s e con d a r y s ch ool, m os t p a r e n t s m a k e e i t h e r a ch i ld -focu s e d ch oi ce, b a s e d on t h e h e a lt h , a b i li t y a n d t e m p e r a m e n t of t h e ch i ld con -ce r n e d , or a s ch ool-focu s e d ch oi -ce b a s e d on cr i t e r i a s u ch a s s i ze, n a t u r e of s t u d e n t i n t a k e (m i xe d or s i n gle s e x ), a n d a m e n i -t i e s [24]. We b s -t e r et a l.[17] fou n d t h a t s i b -li n gs a t t h e s a m e s ch ool w e r e t h e s i n gle la r ge s t i n flu e n ce on p a r e n t a l ch oi ce. T h e r e i s ev i d e n ce t h a t s om e p a r e n t s ch oos e s e c-on d a r y s ch ools c-on t h e b a s i s of t h e s u b je ct s / fa ci li t i e s offe r e d by s ch ools a n d by s t u d e n t s ’ p e r for m a n ce i n a ca d e m i c s u b je ct s [25,26]. A d le r a n d Ra a b [27] n ot e d t h a t s ch ool a t t a i n -m e n t w a s of s u ffi ci e n t i -m p or t a n ce t o e n cou r a ge p a r e n t s t o s e n d ch i ld r e n con s i d e r a b le d i s t a n ce s t o s e con d a r y s ch ool, u s u -a lly t o s ch ools t h -a t w e r e l-a r ge or t h -a t h -a d -a s e le ct ive i n t a k e of s t u d e n t s of h i gh s oci oe con om i c s t a t u s. T h oe oe n q u i r i oe s of J oh n s on [22,28] i n t o p a r e n t a l ch oi ce of i n d e p e n -d e n t s ch ools e ch o t h i s.
Socia l fa ct or s a lso h ave a m a jor in fl u en ce on p a r en t a l ch oice. E lliot t [29] fou n d t h a t p a r en t s p la ced gr ea t va lu e on t h e p r ocess of ed u ca t ion . T h ey st r essed t h e im p or t a n ce of p er son a l a n d socia l d evelop m en t a n d t h e h a p p in ess of t h e ch ild r en in sch ool. H a n for d [30, p. 4] fou n d t h a t p a r en t s va lu ed m ost “t h e h id d en b a sic fu n d a m en t a lism of sch ools” w it h t h e b eh av iou r of st a ff a n d cu r -r en t st u d en t s b ein g p e-r ceived a s t h e k ey in d ica t or s. P a r en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h ese b eh av -iou r s w er e m ed ia t ed by a gen cies ext er n a l t o t h e sch ool, su ch a s t h e n eigh b ou r h ood gr a p ev in e a n d p a r en t s’ p er son a l exp er ien ces of sch oolin g.
N e ga t ive p e r ce p t i on s of s ch ools by p a r e n t s d a m a ge t h e i r a b i li t y t o r e cr u i t s t u d e n t s. We s t et a l.[26] fou n d p a r e n t s p a r t i cu la r ly d i s cou r a ge d by r e p or t s of p oor d i s ci p li n e / b e h av i ou r, by a s ch ool’s b a d r e p u t a t i on , by d i s li k e of w h a t t h e y s aw on a v i s i t or by a s ch ool’s loca t i on . Bot h p os i t ive ly a n d n e ga t ive ly, t h e i m p or t a n ce of a s ch ool’s r e p u t a -t i on loca lly, a n d -t h e s -t y le of -t h e w e lcom e w h i ch i s offe r e d t o p a r e n t s, m u s t b e s e e n a s m a jor fa ct or s i n i t s s u cce s s i n r e cr u i t i n g s t u d e n t s.
Marketing for education
F ir m s m a r k et t h em selves t o a t t r a ct
cu st om er s t o sell p r od u ct s t o ea r n m on ey t o su r v ive. To m a r k et it self effect ively a n or ga -n iza t io-n -n ot o-n ly -n eed s t o com m u -n ica t e w it h it s cu st om er s a n d clien t s bu t a lso t o in volve a ll it s p er son n el in t h e cr ea t ion of m a r k et st r a t e gy [3]. In sch ools t h is in clu d es su p p or t st a ff a s w ell a s t ea ch in g st a ff. All n eed t o sh a r e ow n er sh ip of t h e sch ools’ v ision of w h a t it is a im in g t o a ch ieve a n d feel t h ey h ave a r ole t o p lay in fu t u r e d evelop m en t [31].
In t h e bu sin ess wor ld , n eit h er p r od u ct s n or ser v ices a r e u su a lly m a r k et ed a cr oss t h e w h ole of societ y. Differ en t k in d s of cu st om er h ave d iffer en t w a n t s/ n eed s, w h ich m a r k et in g set s ou t t o id en t ify. F a ilu r e by a fi r m t o d iffer en t ia t e a d eq u a t ely b et w een t h e bu y in g b eh av -iou r of d iffer en t cu st om er s lea d s t o p oor cu s-t om er focu s[32] a n d u ls-t im a s-t ely s-t o s-t h e fi r m ’s colla p se. T h e d evolu t ion of fu n d in g t o m a in -t a in ed sch ools a n d colle ges in -t h e UK sin ce t h e la t e 1980s h a s p r esen t ed sch ools w it h t h e sa m e n eed t o a t t r a ct a n d k ee p st u d en t clien t s. In t h e in d e p en d en t sect or of sch oolin g t h is sit u a t ion h a s exist ed for m u ch lon ger, a l-t h ou gh d em ogr a p h ic, socia l a n d r ecession a r y p r essu r es a r e p r om p t in g in d e p en d en t sch ools a lso t o r econ sid er t h e n eed for p osit ive m a r -k et in g.
N ot ion s of con su m er ch oice in ed u ca t ion a n d t h e a t t en d a n t v iew t h a t m or e p ow er fu l p eop le, a t lea st fi n a n cia lly, a r e m or e a ble t o ga in t h e ser v ice p r ov ision t h ey w a n t , fi t in w ell w it h t h e a t t em p t s by t h e UK gover n m en t t o in t r od u ce a m a r k et in t o st a t e ed u ca t ion in t h e la st 15 yea r s. On t h e ot h er h a n d , t h ey lie u n com for t a b ly a lon gsid e n ot ion s of socia l ju st ice a n d eq u it y of ed u ca t ion a l p r ov ision w h ich h ave u n d er p in n ed t h e d evelop m en t of t h e st a t e sect or of sch oolin g in t h e UK for m or e t h a n a cen t u r y. T h is la t t er p er sp ect ive em p h a sizes a n en t it lem en t t o ed u ca t ion w h ich m eet s t h e va r y in g n eed s of a ll p eop le in a com m u n it y, r e ga r d less of t h eir a b ilit y t o w ield in fl u en ce.
St a t e sch ools t h er efor e fa ce a d ilem m a , p a r t icu la r ly w h er e on ly on e sch ool ser ves a loca l com m u n it y : w h et h er t h ey ser ve t h e n eed s of a n en t ir e com m u n it y or w h et h er t h ey t a r get p a r t icu la r gr ou p s of p a r en t s in it . Ma r k et in g wou ld seem t o su ggest t h e la t t er, t a r get in g t h ose w h o a r e m or e in fl u en t ia l, for w h a t ever r ea son s, bu t t h is con fr on t s issu es of eq u it y of p r ov ision . If a sch ool t a r get s on ly sp ecifi c clien t gr ou p s, it is lik ely t h a t t h e n eed s a n d w a n t s of t h ose p a r en t s a n d st u -d en t s n ot t a r get e-d w ill b e m et less w ell t h a n t h ose t a r get ed . In t h is r esp ect , p er h a p s, in d e-p en d en t sch ools fa ce less of a e-p r oblem t h a n d o st a t e sch ools sin ce t h ey ca n elect t o ser v ice a No tio ns o f c o ns ume r c ho ic e
Jane t A. Harve y and Hugh Bus he r Marke ting sc ho o ls and c o nsume r c ho ic e
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 6 –3 2
n ich e m a r k et for p a r t icu la r p a r en t w a n t s a n d in com e b r a ck et s. If p a r en t s fi n d t h e p r ov ision u n sa t isfa ct or y t h ey ca n w it h d r aw t h eir ch il-d r en fr om t h e sch ool.
In com p et it ive a r en a s, loca lit ies w h er e sever a l sch ools a r e t r y in g t o a t t r a ct t h e sa m e st u d en t p op u la t ion , sch ools m ay w a n t t o a t t r a ct som e p a r en t s in p r efer en ce t o ot h er s. T h ey cou ld id en t ify t h ese p a r en t n ich es in t h e m a r k et by sp ecifi cs or by d escr ip t or s.
Sp ecifi cs in clu d e su ch it em s a s t h e r a t e a t w h ich clien t s p u r ch a se ser v ices, t h e r a n ge of p r od u ct s ava ila ble (in sch ools t h is m igh t b e t h e r a n ge of cou r ses or ext r a cu r r icu la r a ct iv i-t ies) a n d m ed ia exp osu r e. Descr ip i-t or s cover va r ia bles su ch a s a ge (sch ools a r e u su a lly eit h er p r im a r y or secon d a r y ), gen d er, geod e-m ogr a p h ics (socia l st r u ct u r e of a sch ool’s ca t ch m en t a r ea ) a n d p eop le’s p r efer r ed lifest y le. In d e p en d en t sch ools h ave m or e op p or t u n it y t h a n m a in t a in ed sch ools in t h e UK t o se gm en t t h eir m a r k et s by t h ese va r i-a bles.
On t h e ot h er h a n d , a n y sch ool w ish in g t o ser ve t h e w h ole com m u n it y ca n u se t h e sa m e p r ocesses t o id en t ify t h e sp ecifi c n eed s of a ll it s p ot en t ia l clien t gr ou p s, a llow in g it t o d if-fer en t ia t e it s p r ov ision t o ea ch of t h em . It cou ld u se su ch p r ocesses t o id en t ify, for exa m -p le, a n y d isen ch a n t ed gr ou -p s of -p a r en t s a n d set ou t t o m a k e t h em feel m or e w elcom e.
The seven Ps for satisfied school
clients
As in a n y ot h er in d u st r y, sch ools m u st fi r st p la n w h er e t h ey w a n t t o go, a n a ly sin g t h e fou r P s – p r od u ct , p la ce, p r om ot ion a n d p r ice – of t h e or igin a l m a r k et m ix a s w ell a s t h e ot h er t h r ee P s su ggest ed by Cow ell[9] –-p eo-p le, eo-p r ocess a n d t h e eo-p h y sica l ev id en ce of p r od u ct ion .
A sch ool’s p r od u ct is d efi n ed by Ma r la n d a n d Roger s[33, p. 9] a s “t h a t cr ea t ed by p r o-d u cin g – t h a t is t o lea o-d (‘o-d u e’) for w a r o-d (‘p r o’)”. For t h em p r od u ct d evelop m en t is “…t h e wor k of t h e sch ool in est a blish in g w h a t wou ld b en efi t t h e p u p il a n d r esea r ch in g a n d p la n n in g it ” a n d se p a r a t es d eliver y, i.e. t h e a ct u a l t ea ch in g/ t u t or in g, fr om con t en t : w h a t a n d h ow it is b ein g t a u gh t . T h ey su ggest ed t h a t “p r od u ct d evelop m en t ” in sch ools is sh or t h a n d for “p r e p a r a t ion ”: cu r r icu lu m d evelop m en t , p la n n in g for p a st or a l ca r e p r o-gr a m m es a n d a n y ot h er for w a r d p la n n in g w h ich u t ilizes t h e sk ill of t h e st a ff. H ow ever, sch ool m a n a gem en t u su a lly h a s lit t le con t r ol over it s p la ce of p r od u ct ion , a lt h ou gh Bow les et a l.[34] in d ica t ed t h a t it cou ld con t r ol t h e sit e p r ov ision of r oom s a n d t im e t o cou r ses, w h ile sit e m a in t en a n ce a n d m in or r e p a ir s
h ave b een t h e r esp on sib ilit y of m ost sch ools in t h e UK sin ce 1990.
P r om otion of a n edu ca tion a l in stitu tion m ea n s en su r in g th a t its wor k is u n der stood a n d a ppr ecia ted by its pr im a r y a n d secon da r y ben efi cia r ies a s well a s by m or e dista n t sta k eh older s su ceh a s cen tr a l gover n m en t[20], fu r -th er edu ca tion [35] a n d h igh er edu ca tion [36]. Devlin a n d Kn igh t[37] iden tifi ed both in ter n a l a n d exter n a l m a r k ets a s r ecipien ts of th is in for m a tion , th e in ter n a l m a r k et in clu din g a n “im m edia te fa m ily” of sta ff, stu den ts a n d gover n or s a n d a n “exten ded fa m ily” of pr esen t pa r en ts a n d r ela tives, for m er stu den ts a n d pa r en ts, oth er s wh o u se sch ool fa cilities, a n d loca l tr a der s a n d ser vice pr ovider s to th e sch ool[37, p. 16]. In th e exter n a l m a r k et th ey iden tifi ed feeder sch ools, com m u n ity or ga n i-za tion s, in du str y a n d com m er ce a n d loca l a u th or ities. Th eir defi n ition s r a ise qu estion s a bou t h ow m em ber sh ip of a sch ool a s a n or ga -n iza tio-n is defi -n ed.
P r ice ca n n ot b e se p a r a t ed fr om p r om ot ion . In d e p en d en t sch ools obv iou sly offer a com m er cia l ser v ice bu t a ll sch ools a r e cost cen -t r es a n d n eed -t o b a la n ce -t h eir bu d ge-t s. Dav ies a n d E llison [20] p oin t ed ou t t h a t m a in t a in ed sch ools in E n gla n d a n d Wa les sin ce 1990 m u st a t t r a ct en ou gh st u d en t s t o gen er a t e su fficien t in com e t o su r v ive, i.e. t o cover t h eir cost s. Beca u se a t lea st t wo-t h ir d s of t h e r u n n in g cost s of a sch ool a r e sp en t on p er son n el[38], t h e d e p loy m en t of su ch r esou r ces h a s t o b e ca r efu lly t a ilor ed t o m eet id en t ifi ed clien t n eed . St ot t a n d P a r r [31, p. 2] p er ceived t h a t “…t h e p r ice of ed u ca t ion , in r ea l t er m s, is m or e t h a n m on ey ”. For st u d en t s in m a n y m a in t a in ed sch ools in t h e UK t h er e a r e, for exa m p le, sch ool u n ifor m cost s, t r avel cost s a n d t h e effor t s t o ga in a ccess[34]. In in d e p en -d en t sch ools su ch it em s a r e over sh a -d ow e-d by sch ool fees, offset in som e ca ses by d iffer en t t y p es of bu r sa r y su p p or t .
Yet , h ist or ica lly t h e t ea ch in g p r ofession h a s r esist ed t h e im p lica t ion s of t h e “com m er cia l” or “p r ice” a sp ect s of ed u ca t ion , p r efer r in g t o im p lem en t w h a t it p er ceives a s ed u ca t ion a lly d esir a ble p r a ct ices, r e ga r d less of cost . T h e la ck of clea r com m er cia l in d ica t or s of effec-t iven ess is a m a jor ca u se of effec-t h is p r oblem , a lt h ou gh m et a in d ica t or s su ch a s t h e p op u -la r it y of a sch ool or of som e cou r ses ca n b e u sed t o a ssess t h e lik elih ood t h a t a sch ool or a p a r t icu la r p r a ct ice wou ld m a k e a p r ofi t w er e it in a com m er cia l m a r k et .
Jane t A. Harve y and Hugh Bus he r Marke ting sc ho o ls and c o nsume r c ho ic e
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 6 –3 2
su ch p ow er s ca n b e u sed . Sch ools a lso h ave on ly lim it ed con t r ol over t h eir cen t r a l p r ocesses of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g, p a r t ly b eca u se of lon g-est a blish ed t ea ch er s’ p r ofes-sion a l fr eed om s in t h e cla ssr oom , a n d p a r t ly b eca u se of t h e p r escr ip t ion sin ce 1988 by t h e UK cen t r a l gover n m en t of a N a t ion a l Cu r -r icu lu m . T h is in h ib it s sch ools f-r om a d a p t in g t h e a ca d em ic cu r r icu lu m t o t h e id en t ifi ed n eed s of t h e com m u n it ies w h ich for m t h eir m a r k et s. It is in t h eir con t r ol of t h e p h y sica l en v ir on m en t , su ch a s t h e q u a lit y a n d a m b en ce of t h eir r oom s, a n d of t h e p h y sica l ev i-d en ce of t h e lea r n in g p r ocesses, su ch a s t h e u se of op en or r esou r ce-b a sed lea r n in g, t h a t sch ools h ave m ost fr eed om [34].
Is marketing ethical for education?
Tea ch er s a r e p r ofession a ls w h o, a s Bu r gess [39] p oin t ed ou t , u se t h eir k n ow led ge a n d exp er ien ce t o a ssist t h eir st u d en t s a s clien t s a n d w h o a ct in a ccor d a n ce w it h a set of va l-u es so t h a t t h eir con d l-u ct t ow a r d s t h ese clien t s is b ot h et h ica l a n d p r ofession a l. T h eir con cer n s a r e u su a lly w it h t h e q u a lit y of ed u -ca t ion a l exp er ien ce w h ich t h ey p r ov id e t o st u d en t s a n d on ly r a r ely a n d r elu ct a n t ly w it h t h e com m er cia l or m a r k et in g a sp ect s of t h eir wor k . Yet t h e la t t er p r ov id e cr u cia l con -st r a in t s on r esou r ces w h ich in ev it a b ly a ffect ou t com es.
Deb a t es a b ou t t h e a p p r op r ia t en ess of m a r -k et in g t o n on -p r ofi t -m a -k in g or ga n iza t ion s a r e n ot con fi n ed t o ed u ca t ion . H a b good [40] q u est ion ed est h e su iest a b iliest y of m a r k eest in g m eest h od -ologies for t h e p u r p oses of eva n geliza t ion . H ow ever, McIn t osh a n d McIn t osh [41, p. 9] in d ica t ed t h a t , a lt h ou gh t h e p u blic oft en a ssocia t e m a r k et in g w it h “slick a n d , p er h a p s, u n d er h a n d p r ofession a lism ”, m a r k et in g w a s a ct u a lly a n et h ica l im p er a t ive for ch a r it ies. It is im p or t a n t t o id en t ify b en efi cia r ies’ n eed s a s a ccu r a t ely a s p ossible t o avoid w a st a ge of sca r ce r esou r ces.
Ma r k et in g is a p h ilosop h y of m a n a gem en t t h r ou gh w h ich in st it u t ion s con sid er, d eb a t e a n d cla r ify t h eir u n d er ly in g p r in cip les a n d p u r p oses t o m eet t h e n eed s of t h eir clien t s. E d u ca t ion a l m a r k et in g r eq u ir es t h e id en t ifi -ca t ion of st u d en t a n d com m u n it y n eed s a n d a com m it m en t t o m eet in g t h ose n eed s w it h a h igh q u a lit y p r od u ct [20]. P a r d ey [13] su ggest ed t h a t t h e clien t -cen t r ed n a t u r e of m a r k et in g m a d e it et h ica lly a cce p t a ble in ed u ca t ion , p oin t in g ou t t h a t va lu es sh a p e t h e goa ls a n d d ecision m a k in g of a n y or ga n iza -t ion . Gr ay [11] p oin -t ed ou -t -t h a -t if a ll s-t a ff in volved in a sch ool a r e t r y in g t o im p r ove t h e q u a lit y of ser v ice, a ll m u st b e in volved in p r om ot in g “cu st om er ca r e” a n d in en h a n cin g levels of “cu st om er ” sa t isfa ct ion . T h is is,
effect ively, m a r k et in g a sch ool t o it s p r im a r y b en efi cia r ies, t h e st u d en t s, a n d t h eir p a r en t s, even if t h e st a ff con cer n ed a r e n ot com for t -a ble w it h t h e u se of com m er ci-a l t er m in ology t o d escr ib e it .
T h e a sp ect of m a r k et in g w h ich seem s t o ca u se m ost offen ce in sch ools is t h a t w h ich r ela t es t o sellin g. It is t h ou gh t t o b e u n p r ofession a l, if n ot u n et h ica l, for p r ofesofession a l ca r -er s t o t r y t o a t t r a ct cu st om w h en t h eir im p licit p r ofession a l cod es em p h a size look -in g a ft er p eop le a lt r u ist ica lly. On t h e ot h er h a n d , clien t s a n d p ot en t ia l clien t s m ay n eed t o k n ow t h e q u a lit y of a sch ool’s p r od u ct / p r ocess a n d t h e com p et en ce of it s st a ff if t h ey a r e t o m a k e r ea son ed ch oices a b ou t h ow b est t o m eet t h eir ow n n eed s. Sch ool p r osp ect u ses a n d op en d ay s give p a r en t s som e b a sis for in for m ed ch oices a s w ell a s b ein g m ea n s of giv in g t h em som e a ccou n t of h ow w ell a sch ool is look in g a ft er t h eir ch ild r en . P er h a p s a s Gu m m esson [42, p. 34] say s “…it is n ot u n et h ica l or u n wor t h y t o exp r ess t h e a dva n -t a ges of a ser v ice of a p r ofession a l…a s lon g a s t h e t r u t h is t old ”. Beca u se t ea ch er s h ave b een r et icen t in t h e p a st a b ou t t h e com p lexit ies of t h eir job a n d w h a t is in volved in p er for m in g it , t h ey h ave su ffer ed t h e h u m ilia t ion of see-in g a t r avest y of t h eir wor k p or t r ayed see-in m u ch of t h e m a ss-m ed ia in t h e UK in t h e 1980s, su ch t h a t t h e p u blic cou ld h ave b een led t o b elieve t h a t t ea ch in g w a s a n ea sy job w it h r ela t ively sh or t h ou r s of wor k , t h e p r ob -lem s of w h ich w er e t r iv ia l a n d r ela t ively ea sily r esolved by h a r d er wor k , t ou gh er d isci-p lin e a n d m or e r igor ou s t est in g. Wou ld t h a t t h e p r oblem s of sch ools w er e solved so ea sily !
Ma r k et in g is a “m a n a gem en t or ien t a t ion p r ocess”[43, p. 48], t h e fou n d a t ion of a sch ool’s m a n a gem en t st r a t e gy. It s m a in focu s is n ot on t h ose a sp ect s of a n or ga n iza t ion for w h ich t ea ch er s seem t o h ave lit t le t im e – t h e slick p r ocesses of im a gem a k in g a n d p u blic r ela -t ion s – n or on -t h ose in w h ich m os-t of -t h em t a k e lit t le in t er est – r esou r ce m a n a gem en t – a lt h ou gh it is con cer n ed w it h u sin g sca r ce r esou r ces a s effect ively a s p ossible t o m eet t h e id en t ifi ed n eed s of a n or ga n iza t ion ’s clien t s. T h e m a in focu s of m a r k et in g is on a d ia logu e b et w een a n or ga n iza t ion a n d it s clien t s, a sch ool a n d it s st u d en t s a n d p a r en t s, a n d on h ow t h eir d iffer en t n eed s ca n b e m et m ost effect ively, issu es w h ich a r e a t t h e h ea r t of m ost t ea ch er s’ p r ofession a l con cer n s. To m eet t h ese n eed s r eq u ir es a ll st a ff t o b e in volved in a con st a n t , sy st em a t ic r ev iew of t h eir p r a ct ice in or d er t o im p r ove t h e q u a lit y of t h e ser v ice of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g w h ich t h eir sch ool p r ov id es. Ma r k et in g, t h en , is cr u cia l if a sch ool is t o d evelop it s v ision for it s st u d en t s a n d m a in t a in t h e p r a ct ices of sch ool im p r ovem en t .
Jane t A. Harve y and Hugh Bus he r Marke ting sc ho o ls and c o nsume r c ho ic e
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 6 –3 2
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