lecture no 03 4

DAY SCHOOLS

03 & 04

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE

IN

NURSING

NIMAL LIYANAGE

B.Sc, M.Sc(Applied Psychology)Col

M.Phil/PhD re Col, SORT(UK) Dip OT (S.L)

APPLIED PSYCHOLOGOST

Contents

 _{Perceiving forms}

Pattern Objects

 _{Consciousness}

 _Emotion

 _Motivation

 _{Memory and Cognition}

 _{Pain & Stress}

STIMULI AND SENSATION

A stimuli is something that comes from the out side one’s body – from one’s environment.

Sense organs are that gateways by which we acquire knowledge of the world around us.

The stimuli activate receptors of the concern sense organs.

The receptors release the neural impulses which are

transmitted to the concerned area of the brain where they are interpreted. These are called effectors.

This gives the knowledge of object stimulation.

Physical – Stimuli.

LIMITES OF SENSATION

The weakest stimulus that produces a noticeable sensation – Absolute Threshold.

The smallest change in a stimulus that produces a noticeable change in sensation – Difference threshold.

Eyes – Vision (Light, Color, Shape) Ear – Auditory

Tongu – Taste Nose – olfactory

Skin – Cutaneous sensation Organs – Organic Sensation

Muscles – Kinesthetic sensation

PRECEVING FORMS , PATTERNS &

OBJECTS

Reader page 45 figure 4.18

 _{Seal balancing a ball on its nose and a trainer holding a fish with a}

while.

 _{Man & Woman}

Woman handing him a hat and he has a sword in his right hard. The one visual input can result in radically different reason why

people’s experience of world is subjective.

This is a principal reason why people’s experience of the world is subjective.

Perception involves much more than passively receiving signals from the out side world.

It involves the interpretation of sensory input Interpretation result of two different “realities”

They are,,

1. Expectation – redness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way. (perceptatul set)

2. Knowledge – An understanding of how people perceive forms , patterns and objects.

FEATURE ANALYSIS

Perception of from and pattern entail Feature analysis.

This is the processes of detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form.

The feature of objects included a number of geometric forms such as cylinders, cones blocks (Lines, curves)

These failure refer to as “geons”

There are two types of fealure analysis They are

1. Bottom up process

- Driven solely by the input - Geons involves

- One start with primitive features of input, determines the Geon configuration of the input.

- Individual elements to the whole. 2.Top down process

- driven by persons knowledge and experience.

- progressing from the whole to the elements( The word The letters)

GESTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Organized in Germany

Founders – Max Wertheimer, Kurt Kaffka Wolfgang Kohler – 1912

The German word Gestalt psychologist form or configuration. The gestalt psychologist maintained that ,mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole pattern of sensory activity within this pattern.

When look at the dotes, our mental experience is not just on dots, but also a square and a triangle placed on a straight line. In the other terms, the mind is best understood the ways elements are organized.

1. Figure and grounds

Reader page 47 fig 4.21

White vase against black background?

This reversible figure illustrate the gestalt principal of figure & ground.

Dividing visual displays into figure and ground is a

fundamental way in which people organize visual perception. The perception is made against a background.

So in every perception there is figure and ground relationship. 2. Proximity

page 48. Reader fig 4.22

Things that are near one another Seem to belong together.

Objects or figures which are close to each other will form a unit or pattern.

3.Similarity

Page 48.Reader fig 4.22

Objects or figures which are similar in shape or forms, though mixes up with other things we will have the tendency of

4.Continuity

Reader page 48 fig 4.22

Continuous lines or dots irrespective of shape or size or color will form a un

5. Simplicity

Reader page 48 gig 4.22

Viewers tends to organize elements in the simplest way possible. 6. Closure

Reader page 48 gig 4.22

People often group elements to create a sense of closure.

FORMULATING PERCEPTUAL HYPOTHESIS

Gestalt principles provide some indications of how people organized visual inputs.

The stimuli need to organize perceptions They are,

1. Distal Stimuli Lie in distance

These are distance in that eyes do not touch them. 2. Proximal Stimuli

Eyes do touch

Formed a pattern of light falling to refine

Stimuli energy that impringe directly on sensory receptor. Reader page of fig 4.23 b & c

Perceptual hypothesis – is an inference about which distal could be responsible for the proximal stimuli sensed.

In this case the trapezoidal image on the retina may present but perceptual system guesses correctly that it is a square. Fig 4.25 page 48 famous reversible figure.

Young woman & old woman

Fig 4.25 page 49

Unambiguous drawing.

Left young woman Right old woman. Now can see eithe woman in fig 4.24

Now you need some guidance to identify them.

When you expect young woman or old woman you all them. Perceptual sets influence what people see.

Top down processing in visual perception.

PERCEIVING DEPTH OR DISTANCE

This is involves interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away objects are.

1. Binocular cues

Each eye has a slightly different view of the word.

this binocular cues are clues about distance based on the differing views of the eyes.

2. Monocular cues

Are clues about distance based on the image in either alone.

THE POWER OF MISLEADING CUES

Optical illusions

This is involve an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality.

Eg – Muller – layer illusion

X Y

Hallucination

Defending factors of perception.

Values & interest

Sense organs

Brain functions

Past experience

Attitudes

Motives

Beliefs

CONSCIOUSNESS

Consciousness done not have satisfactory definition. But Psychologist say

Consciousness is the personal awareness This consists of

all sensations all thoughts all perceptions all memories all feelings

That you are aware of at any given instant. Consciousness includes four components

1. awareness of external events 2. awareness of internal sensations

Characteristic of consciousness 1. Consciousness is limited

2. Consciousness is related to brain activity 3. Consciousness has two models of from a. Intrusive consciousness

one hemisphere handle. b. Artistic consciousness Two hemisphere handle.

4. There are continuum of conscious The structural model of mind

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS

Rhythmic activities

E.G - Menstrual cycle Urine formation

Rhythicity of Nervous system. Secretion of from glands

Sleep rhythm

SLEEP AND DREAM

Familiar state of consciousness.

Four stages of sleep (according to psychology)

In addition to the dream stage or rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.

These stages

stage 1, stage2, stage3, stage4

These stage identified with the help of EEG waves

Progression of EEG from stage 1 sleep to stage 4 sleep, the frequency of the EEG waves become slower.

REM & NREM SLEEP

NREM sleep

Stage 1, 2, 3, 4 – NREM sleep - sleep becomes deeper

NREM absence of rapid eye movement and relatively little dreaming and varied EEG activity.

Strenuous physical activity increases NREM

REM Sleep

Once descended into four sleep stage climb back stage 3, 2 and 1.

In this point person enter to the next stage. It is stage 5 called REN sleep.

Eye movements occur

Dreaming during REM Sleep High frequency brain waves. Body muscles loss their tones.

MOTIVATION

What is motivation ?

Motivation s an internal factor within each individual that arouse, maintain and channel behavior towards a desired goal.

Emotion is an important element in our motivation The role of motivation in behavior.

1. Motivation determines what makes a reinforcement . 2. Motivation accounts for goal orientation

3. Motivation determines the time spent in different activities. 4. Motivation accounts for difference in achievement.

1.Drive Theory

2. Incentive Theory

An incentive is a goal outside our self that motivates behavior.

Source of Motivation

Excentric Motivation – E.g. money, praise, good health

Intrinsic Motivation – e.g. Satisfaction Encouragement positive thinking.

3. Arousal Theory

The motivation for behavior is the level of arousal or excitement, present in a person

Sleep – no arousal

Alertness – medium arousal Excitement – high around

Achievement Motivation

Refers to the strong need to achieve you personal goals and the feeling of pride in such attainments.

There are certain factors that will determine how much we will pursue achievement in a particular situation. These are

1. The strength of one’s motivation to succeed

2. The belief one has about the chance for success. This will very from task to task.

3. The degree of pride or pleasure 4. The rewards for success.

Explain

Motivation for Eating

Hunger motivation for eating. The role of brain.

Blood sugar level Hormones

Eating Disorders

EMOTION

Emotion is a psychological state

e.g. – Joy, Sorrow, Happiness, grief, anger, fear Emotion includes three components

Cognitive, Physiological, behavioral component Cognitive - subjective conscious experience Physiological – bodily arousal

PHYSICAL CORRELATES OF EMOTION

AROUSAL

E.g. change of anger

Physiological changes

Arousal of autonomies Nervous system. Physical changes with emotions.

Muscle tension pounding heart etc.(explain) Physical changes with emotions.

Increased heart rate dialation of blood vessels Decrease of muscles in gastrointestinal tract. increase in blood sugar

increase in rate of greating decreased in salivation

increase in visual sensitivity etc

PRECEIVING AND UNDERSTANDING THE

EMOTIMNS OF OTHERS

By communication

By Gesture, facial expression, tone of voice, using works, posture, movement

By body language-movement posture,…………...

Theories Of Emotion

Cannon Bard Theory

Emotions occurs when Thalamus sends Signals to cortex

Perception of the situation

Pattern of activity produced in lower brain area Eg Hypothalamus

To the internal To the cerebral organs and external cortex

muscles

James – Lange Theory

Emotion is the perception of badly changes

Perceive the situation

React to the reaction

Notice our reaction (Felt emotion)

Different for each pattern of bodily activity

Schachter – Singer Theory

Emotion is the result of interpretation of badly arousal or changes

Perception of an emotional situation

Perception of bodily arousal

Interpretation of the reason for the arousal state

Motivation

Emotion

1. Aroused by internal stimuli and directed towards certain object in the environment

Eg food , water

2. Feelings persist longer time

3. Simple and sensory

1. Arouse by external stimuli and expression is directed towards the.

2. Out wards are …….

MEMORY

Memory- human capacity to register, retain & remember information

Cognitive processes of memory

Encoding- It is the process of receiving sensory inputs and transferring it in to code

Storage or retentio0n-Information encoded is kept overtime

Retrivals process of gaining access to the encoded stored information when it is to be used

Types of Memory

Three kinds

Sensory memory

SENSORY MEMORY

Information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second( Weiten p.28)

Registered by sight, taste, sounds, smells, touch

Keep this for a short period after the sensory stimulation is over

SHORT TERM MEMORY

Sensory memory transfer to STM

Can hold information for a limited time

Can only hold so much

Has a limited capacity-30 seconds Rehersals help to strenght STM

Holds relatively small amount of information about 7 item Types of information- Sounds, Images, Words, Sentences Rehersals help to transfer. STM to LTM

Two

Maintains- Just going over and over remember items(respetition) to LTM

LONG TERM MEMORY(LTM)

Store the memory presently No limit for storage

Consist of words sentences ideas concept and life experience Two types

Semantic Memory- Contains meaning of words 7 concept & rules for using them in language & thinking

Episodic Memory- Memory of specific things that have happened to a person

Sensory output

Sensory

memory SMT LMT

Attended and recognized materials

Retriev als

Rehersal

MEMORY RETRIVALS

Unable search information from LTM at once because there are lot of information stored there

The fashion that try to retrievals information is retrieval information's is retrieval cues

These help to recovery of information from LTM There are two methods

1. Recognition 2.Recall

Tip of the tongue method

Aided Retrievals

Mnemonic Devices – The devices which are helping to keep memory. Type using

Rehearsal

Deep processing Distributed Practice Acromys

Forgeting

Refers to the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in LTM

Mesuring of forgeting

1.Recall 2. Recognition 3. Relearning

Causes of forgetting

1. Encoding Problems

2. Decay – memory faded with the simple fact that time has elapsed produces forgetting.

3. Interference

Information that learned previously intefere with new learning's.

There are two types

*Proactive activities interference

Ongoing activities interference with the strong or retrieval of new information.

*Retroactive

ATTENTION

• _{Import for memory}

• _{How attention effects for memory}

1.Low level of arousal – negative effects. 2. High level of arousal – Anxiety Pain

• _{Attention is important for health workers – why?}

Cognitions

Higher processes – thinking decision making judging

Problem Solving

Reductive Thinking

Problem Solving

1. Understanding stage 2. Assessment Stage 3. Planning stage

4. Implementation Stage 5.Evaluation Stage

Trail and Error

Heuristics – guding principle or rule of thumb

Impediments to problem solving

Obstruction to problem solving Fixation –

Function Fixedness –

Creativity

Creativity is actually a mean of problem solving and is

Pain Stress - & coping

Pain –

Pain is an unwanted perception

Pain is subjective, individual, and modified by degree of attention , emotional state and conditioning of past experience Living stone 1943

Physiological or physical pain .

Psychological or psychogenic pain.

Theory of Pain.

There are three theories of pain Specificity theory

Pattern Theory

Specificity theory

 _{Pain is associated with stimulation of the free nerve endings.}  _{Number of structures within the nervous system that}

contribute to pain.

 _{Two types of nerve fibers have been implicated}

Miyelinated A fiber Unmyelinated C fiber

 _{Thoracic & Abdominal regions are different from skin.}  _{Renal stones give severe pain.}

 _{Pain felt when pain pathways are stimulated}

 _{This theory doesn't explain the reasons for psychological}

Pattern Theory

 _{This theory relates pain perception to particular pattern of}

impulses in the nervous system.

 _{Pain may occur with any kind of stimulation as long as the}

stimulation is excessive.

 _{The differences in quantity rather than quality, of peripheral}

nerve fiber discharge produce differences in quality of sensation.

 _{Small stimulation of the cornea causes a feeling of tough,}

where as strong stimulation cause pain.

 _{The same kind of nerve fibers are discharging, but the}

Gate Control Theory

 _{The central idea of gate control theory is the presence of}

neural mechanisms in the spinal cord which can somehow close a gate and so prevent pain messages from traveling to the brain.

 _{Inter neurons located in the spinal cord}

 _{These interneuron's receive input from two sources.}

1. Nerve fiber carrying pain messages

2. Nerve fibers carrying information from the skin sense such as temperature and pressure.

 _{What is happening when the gate is closed}

 _{Melzack and wall (1965) propose that information descending}

from the brain can also open and close the gate.

 _{Psychological factors such as}

Factors Influencing Pain

1. Physiological or physical factors.

*Pain Tolerance *Age *Temperature

*Body constitution *Sex *Climate

*Light *Darkness *Noise level *Avoidance of *Degree of injury. *Physical activity.

2. Psychological factors

*Personality *Attention *Dependence

*Social context *Attitude *Ego

*Past experience *Education *Expectation

*Avoidance behavior *Judgment *Memory of pain.

*Anxiety *Depression

3. Social Factors

*Relationship with family *Culture

*Social Norms *Social interaction

Pain Management

 _{Pharmacological management}

 _{Surgical techniques}

 _{Sensory stimulation techniques}

 _{Psychological Treatments.}

*Biofeedback *Guided imagine technique

*Relaxation *Rational emotive therapy

*Cognitive Restructuring *Behavioral modification therapy

*Psychoanalytic Approaches *Assertive Training

Children’s Pain

Statement in the collier (1993) questionnaire

 _{Active children cannot be in pain}

 _{Children will always tell you when they are in pain.}  _{Children feel pain quicker than adults.}

 _{It is unsafe to administer narcotics to children}

because they become addicted.

 _{Children forget pain quicker than adult.}

 _{Narcotics always depress respiration in child.}  _{Children cannot accurate tell you where it hurts.}

 _{The best way to administer analgesia is by injection.}  _{Parents know the best way to manage their}

children's pain.

 _{Generally there is a usual amount of pain associated}

with any given procedure.

 _{The less often being restrained during procedures,}

Stress

Within (1992) defines stress as

Any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one’s coping ability.

Responses in the human being due to stress. Bodily Responses

Psychological Responses

Stressors

The factors which are responsible to produce stress are “Stressor”

The stressors may be.

Physical Stressors – (injury, infections, exercise, noise, climate,)

Emotional Stressors – (frustration, conflicts changes of life events)

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Stress may produce some body reactions which are generally called GAS.

This consists of three stages Alarm reaction

Alarm Stage

 _{Shock reaction}

 _{Body recognizes the existence of the threat and masters it}

resources to comeback the challenges.

 _{This result in a slight reduction of the body’s ability to resist}

 _{This first stage quickly changes to an intermediate stage called}

counter shock This reduces the body’s resistance to stress.

 _{The ANS triggers an increased production of hormones by the}

adrenal glant

 _{Then adrenal gland legions to enlarge nodes legions to shrunk.}  _{This is the physiological response for stress syndromes.}

Resistance stage

Generalized reaction of the body to the stress begins to decrease as more effects to cope with the stress take over.

Exhausting Stage

If the local defenses are unsuccessful , or if the stress continues for extended period of time.

Brain – Body Pathways – Stress response Brain

Signal regarding streamSignal regarding stream

(Through)ANS Hypothalamus

Adrenal gland Librating ACTH

Release Catecholamine's Adrenal Cortex To blood stream

Heart Respiration system Release Corticoids

Increase Increase Respiration Heart rate

Pupils dilate

Fight or flight reaction

Increase visual sensitivity

Behavioral Response

Under behavioral response people uses different types of copies methods for stress some of them are

1. Aggressive Behavior

frustration leads to this behavior e.g Kick the table

Punish himself Hurt Himself

This may leads to get more stress later 2. Giving up

Learned helplessness – Seligman 3. Defensive coping

This may lead to delay facing up to a problem. 4. Indulging one self

Self indulging – eg eat, drink, smoke, too much spent money use drugs.

5. Constractive coping

There are health constrictive ways to manage stress. Confront a problem directly.

Analysis the stressful situation Relaxation

Keep physical health Use sense of honor

Stress and Health

Stress causes number of physical psychological disorders. Physical Disorders

 _{Respiration Disorders}

Common cold Rhinitis Bronchial asthma

 _{Cardiovascular Disorders}

Tachycardia, Anginal syndrome. Hypertension, Coronary disease

 _{Gastrointestinal Disorders}

Anoroxia , Reptic ulcer Bulimia Colitis

 _{Migraine Headach, Headach}  _{Genitourinary Diseases}

Enuresis

 _{Menstrual Disorders}

Premenstrual tension

 _{Disturbances of sexual functions}

Importance

Premature ejaculation Vaginismus

frigidity

 _{Psychological / Mental Disorders.}

Anxiety Disorders

There are several types Somatoform Disorders

There are several types