Directory listing of http: uap.unnes.ac.id ebook linux ebook Complete LINUX Command Reference

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i

Introduction

201 West 103rd Street Indianapolis, Indiana 46290

LINUX COMPLETE

Command Reference

For more information on the Linux operating system and Red Hat Software, Inc., check http://www.redhat.com.

Compiled by J. Purcell

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President

Richard K. Swadley

Publisher and Director of Acquisitions

Jordan Gold

Director of Product Development

Dean Miller

Managing Editor

Kitty Wilson Jarrett

Indexing Manager

Johnna L. VanHoose

Director of Marketing

Kelli S. Spencer

Associate Product Marketing Manager

Jennifer Pock

Marketing Coordinator

Linda Beckwith

All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. No patent liability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein. Although every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein. For information, address Sams Publishing, 201 W. 103rd St., Indianapolis, IN 46290.

International Standard Book Number: 0-672-31104-6

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-66202

2000 99 98 97 4 3 2 1

Interpretation of the printing code: the rightmost double-digit number is the year of the book’s printing; the rightmost single-digit, the number of the book’s printing. For example, a printing code of 97-1 shows that the first printing of the book occurred in 1997.

Composed in AGaramond and MCPdigital by Macmillan Computer Publishing

Printed in the United States of America

TRADEMARKS

All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Sams Publishing cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.

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Overview

Part I

User Commands

2 Part II

System Calls

738 Part III

Library Functions

892 Part IV

Special Files

1064

Part V

File Formats

1104

Part VI

Games

1210

Part VII

Miscellaneous

1214

Part VIII

Administration and Privileged Commands

1258

Part IX

Kernel Reference Guide

1424

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Part

I

User Commands

Introduction ... 2

addftinfo ... 2

afmtodit ... 2

ansi2knr ... 4

anytopnm ... 4

appres ... 5

ar ... 5

arch ... 8

GNU as ... 8

asciitopgm... 10

atktopbm ... 10

bash ... 11

bdftopcf ... 47

beforelight ... 47

biff ... 48

bioradtopgm ... 48

bitmap, bmtoa, atobm ... 49

bmptoppm ... 57

brushtopbm ... 57

cal ... 58

cat ... 58

chattr ... 59

chfn ... 60

chgrp... 61

chkdupexe... 61

chmod... 61

chown ... 62

chsh ... 63

ci ... 64

cidentd... 69

cksum ... 70

clear ... 70

cmuwmtopbm ... 71

co ... 71

col ... 76

colcrt ... 77

colrm ... 77

column... 78

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v

Introduction

convdate... 79

cp ... 80

cccp, cpp ... 81

crontab... 84

csplit ... 85

ctags ... 87

cu ... 88

cut ... 90

cvs... 91

date ... 106

dd ... 108

depmod, modprobe... 109

df ... 112

dig ... 113

dnsquery ... 117

domainname ... 119

dsplit ... 119

du ... 120

editres ... 121

elvis, ex, vi, view, input ... 126

elvprsv... 128

elvrec ... 129

emacs ... 130

emacstool ... 134

etags ... 135

expand ... 137

find ... 137

fitstopnm ... 142

fmt ... 143

fold ... 143

free... 144

fsinfo ... 145

fslsfonts ... 145

fstobdf... 146

fstopgm ... 147

ftp ... 147

fuser ... 154

g++... 155

g3topbm ... 160

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gcal ... 173

gcc, g++... 174

gemtopbm ... 201

geqn ... 202

getlist ... 206

getopt ... 207

giftopnm ... 208

gindxbib ... 209

glookbib ... 210

gnroff ... 210

gouldtoppm ... 211

gpic ... 211

gprof ... 216

grefer... 217

grep, egrep, fgrep ... 224

grephistory ... 226

grodvi ... 227

groff ... 228

grog ... 230

grops ... 230

grotty ... 235

gsoelim... 236

gtbl ... 236

gtroff ... 237

gzip, gunzip, zcatgzip, gunzip, zcat ... 248

gzexe ... 252

head ... 253

hexdump ... 254

hipstopgm ... 256

host ... 257

hostid... 258

hostname ... 259

hpcdtoppm v0.3 ... 260

httpd... 261

icontopbm ... 262

ident ... 262

ilbmtoppm ... 263

imake ... 264

imgtoppm ... 267

inews... 267

info ... 269

innconfval ... 270

insmod ... 271

install ... 272

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vii

Introduction

ispell, buildhash, munchlist, findaffix, tryaffix, icombine, ijoin ... 274

join ... 282

kill ... 283

killall ... 284

ksyms ... 284

last ... 285

lbxproxy ... 286

ld ... 287

lispmtopgm ... 292

lkbib ... 292

ln ... 293

lndir ... 294

locate ... 295

logger ... 295

login... 296

look... 297

lpq ... 298

lpr ... 299

lprm ... 301

lptest ... 302

ls, dir, vdir... 303

lsattr ... 304

lsmod ... 305

lynx ... 306

macptopbm ... 309

make ... 310

makedepend ... 312

makestrs ... 314

mattrib ... 315

mbadblocks ... 316

mcd... 316

mcookie ... 317

mcopy ... 317

md5sum ... 318

mdel ... 318

mdeltree ... 319

mdir ... 319

merge ... 320

mesg... 321

mformat ... 321

mgrtopbm ... 322

mkdir ... 323

mkdirhier ... 323

mkfifo ... 323

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mknod ... 325

mlabel ... 325

mmd ... 326

mmount ... 326

mmove ... 327

more ... 327

mrd ... 329

mread... 329

mren ... 329

mtest ... 330

mtools... 330

mtvtoppm ... 333

mtype... 333

mv ... 334

mwrite ... 335

namei ... 335

newaliases... 336

newgrp ... 336

nl ... 337

nlmconv... 338

nm ... 339

nntpget ... 340

objcopy ... 341

objdump ... 342

oclock ... 344

od ... 345

passwd ... 346

paste... 347

pbmclean ... 348

pbmfilters... 348

pbmlife ... 352

pbmmake ... 353

pbmmask ... 353

pbmpscale ... 354

pbmreduce ... 355

pbmtext ... 355

pbmto10x ... 356

pbmto4425 ... 357

pbmtoascii ... 357

pbmtoatk ... 358

pbmtobg ... 358

pbmtocmuwm ... 358

pbmtoepsi ... 359

pbmtoepson ... 359

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ix

Introduction

pbmtogem ... 360

pbmtogo ... 360

pbmtoicon ... 361

pbmtolj ... 361

pbmtoln03 ... 362

pbmtolps... 362

pbmtomacp... 363

pbmtomgr ... 363

pbmtopgm ... 364

pbmtopi3 ... 364

pbmtopk ... 364

pbmtoplot ... 365

pbmtoptx ... 366

pbmtox10bm ... 366

pbmtoxbm ... 367

pgmtoybm ... 367

pbmtozinc ... 367

pbmupc ... 368

pcxtoppm ... 368

pfbtops... 369

pgmbentley ... 369

pgmcrater ... 370

pgmedge ... 371

pgmenhance ... 371

pgmhist ... 372

pgmkernel ... 372

pgmnoise ... 373

pgmnorm ... 373

pgmoil ... 374

pgmramp ... 374

pgmtexture... 375

pgmtofs... 376

pgmtolispm ... 376

pgmtopbm ... 377

pgmtoppm ... 378

pi1toppm ... 378

pi3topbm ... 379

picttoppm ... 379

pjtoppm ... 381

pktopbm ... 381

pnmalias... 381

pnmarith ... 382

pnmcat ... 383

pnmcomp ... 383

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pnmcrop ... 385

pnmcut ... 385

pnmdepth ... 385

pnmenlarge ... 386

pnmfile ... 386

pnmflip ... 387

pnmgamma... 387

pnmhistmap... 388

pnmindex... 388

pnminvert ... 389

pnmmargin ... 389

pnmnlfilt ... 390

pnmnoraw ... 391

pnmpad ... 392

pnmpaste ... 392

pnmrotate ... 393

pnmscale ... 393

pnmshear ... 394

pnmsmooth ... 395

pnmtile ... 395

pnmtoddif... 396

pnmtofits ... 396

pnmtops... 397

pnmtorast ... 398

pnmtosgi ... 398

pnmtosir ... 399

pnmtotiff ... 399

pnmtoxwd ... 400

ppm3d ... 400

ppmbrighten ... 401

ppmchange ... 401

ppmdim ... 402

ppmdist ... 402

ppmdither ... 403

ppmflash ... 404

ppmforge ... 404

ppmhist ... 408

ppmmake ... 408

ppmmix ... 408

ppmnorm ... 409

ppmntsc ... 409

ppmpat ... 410

ppmquant ... 411

ppmquantall... 412

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xi

Introduction

ppmrelief ... 413

ppmshift ... 413

ppmspread ... 414

ppmtoacad ... 414

ppmtobmp ... 416

ppmtogif ... 416

ppmtoicr ... 417

ppmtoilbm ... 418

ppmtomap ... 419

ppmtomitsu ... 420

ppmtopcx... 421

ppmtopgm ... 421

ppmtopi1 ... 422

ppmtopict ... 422

ppmtopj ... 423

ppmtopjxl ... 424

ppmtopuzz ... 424

ppmtorgb3 ... 425

ppmtosixel ... 425

ppmtotga ... 426

ppmtouil ... 427

ppmtoxpm ... 427

ppmtoyuv ... 428

ppmtoyuvsplit ... 428

pr ... 429

ps ... 430

psbb ... 433

psidtopgm ... 433

pstopnm... 434

pstree ... 435

psupdate ... 436

qrttoppm ... 436

quota... 437

ranlib ... 437

rasttopnm ... 438

rawtopgm ... 439

rawtoppm ... 439

rcp ... 440

rcs ... 441

rcsclean ... 443

rcsdiff ... 445

rcsfreeze ... 446

rcsintro ... 447

rcsmerge... 449

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reconfig ... 454

ref ... 455

reset ... 456

resize ... 456

rev... 457

rgb3toppm ... 457

rlog ... 458

rlogin ... 460

rm ... 461

rmdir ... 462

rmmod... 462

rnews ... 463

rpcgen ... 464

rsh ... 466

rstart ... 467

rstartd ... 468

rup ... 472

rusers ... 472

rwall ... 473

rwho ... 474

script ... 474

sed ... 475

sessreg ... 480

setterm ... 482

sgitopnm ... 483

shar ... 484

shlock... 487

showrgb ... 488

shrinkfile ... 488

sirtopnm ... 488

size ... 489

sldtoppm ... 490

smproxy ... 491

sort ... 492

spctoppm ... 494

split ... 494

spottopgm ... 495

sputoppm... 495

sq ... 496

startx ... 496

strings ... 498

strip ... 499

subst ... 500

sum ... 501

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xiii

Introduction

tac ... 503

tail ... 504

talk... 505

tcal ... 506

telnet ... 507

tfmtodit ... 513

tftp ... 514

tgatoppm ... 515

tifftopnm ... 515

tin, rtin, cdtin, tind ... 516

tload... 533

top ... 533

touch ... 536

tr ... 536

tset, reset ... 539

tsort ... 542

twm ... 542

txt2gcal ... 558

ul ... 558

unexpand ... 559

uniq ... 560

unshar ... 560

updatedb ... 561

uptime ... 562

userlist ... 563

uucp... 563

uuencode ... 565

uustat ... 566

uux... 569

uuxqt ... 572

w... 573

wall ... 574

wc ... 574

whereis ... 575

write... 576

x11perf... 577

x11perfcomp ... 585

xargs... 586

xauth ... 587

xbmtopbm ... 592

xcmsdb... 592

xclock... 593

xclipboard ... 595

xconsole ... 597

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xdm ... 599

xdpyinfo... 614

Xf86_Accel ... 614

XF86_Mono ... 624

XF86_SVGA ... 627

XF86_VGA16 ... 631

xf86config... 633

xfd ... 633

XFree86 ... 636

xfs ... 641

xhost ... 643

xieperf ... 645

ximtoppm ... 654

xinetd... 655

xinit ... 664

xkill... 666

xlogo ... 667

xlsatoms ... 668

xlsclients... 669

xlsfonts... 670

xmag ... 671

xmkmf ... 672

xmodmap ... 672

xon ... 676

xpmtoppm ... 677

xprop ... 677

xrdb ... 681

xrefresh ... 684

Xserver ... 685

xset ... 690

xsetroot ... 693

xsm ... 694

xsmclient ... 698

xstdcmap... 699

xterm ... 700

Xvfb ... 717

xvidtune ... 719

xvminitoppm ... 720

xwd ... 721

xwdtopnm ... 722

xwininfo ... 722

xwud ... 725

ybmtopbm ... 726

ytalk ... 727

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xv

Introduction

yuvtoppm ... 731

zcmp, zdiff ... 731

zeisstopnm ... 732

zforce ... 732

zgrep ... 733

zmore ... 733

znew... 734

Part

II

System Calls

intro ... 738

exit ... 739

accept ... 740

access ... 741

acct ... 742

adjtimex ... 742

alarm ... 744

bdflush ... 744

bind ... 745

brk, sbrk... 746

cacheflush ... 746

chdir, fchdir ... 747

chmod, fchmod... 748

chown, fchown ... 749

chroot ... 750

clone ... 751

close ... 752

connect ... 752

dup, dup2 ... 753

execve... 754

fcntl ... 755

fdatasync ... 756

flock ... 757

fork, vfork ... 758

fsync ... 758

getdents ... 759

getdomainname, setdomainname ... 760

getdtablesize ... 760

getgid, getegid ... 761

getgroups, setgroups... 761

gethostid, sethostid ... 762

gethostname, sethostname... 763

getitimer, setitimer ... 763

getpagesize ... 765

getpeername ... 765

getpid, getppid ... 766

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getrlimit, getrusage, setrlimit ... 767

getsid ... 768

getsockname... 769

getsockopt, setsockopt ... 769

gettimeofday, settimeofday... 772

getuid, geteuid ... 773

idle ... 774

ioctl... 774

ioperm ... 788

iopl ... 788

ipc ... 789

kill ... 790

killpg... 790

link ... 791

listen ... 792

llseek ... 793

lseek ... 793

mkdir ... 794

mknod ... 795

mlock ... 796

mlockall ... 797

mmap, munmap ... 799

modify_ldt ... 800

get_kernel_syms, create_module, init_module, delete_module ... 800

mount, umount ... 802

mprotect ... 804

mremap ... 805

msgctl ... 806

msgget... 807

msgop ... 808

msync ... 811

munlock... 811

munlockall ... 812

nanosleep ... 813

nice ... 814

oldfstat, oldlstat, oldstat, oldolduname, olduname ... 814

open, creat ... 815

outb, outw, outl, outsb, outsw, outsl ... 816

pause ... 817

personality ... 817

phys ... 818

pipe... 818

profil ... 819

ptrace ... 820

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xvii

Introduction

read ... 822

readdir ... 823

readlink ... 823

readv, writev... 824

reboot ... 825

recv, recvfrom, recvmsg ... 826

rename ... 828

rmdir ... 829

sched_get_priority_max, sched_get_priority_min ... 830

sched_rr_get_interval ... 831

sched_setparam, sched_getparam ... 832

sched_setscheduler, sched_getscheduler ... 833

sched_yield ... 835

select, FD_CLR, FD_ISSET, FD_SET, FD_ZERO ... 835

semctl... 837

semget ... 839

semop ... 840

send, sendto, sendmsg ... 842

setfsgid ... 843

setfsuid... 844

setgid ... 845

setpgid, getpgid, setpgrp, getpgrp ... 845

setregid, setegid ... 846

setreuid, seteuid ... 847

setsid ... 848

setuid ... 848

setup ... 849

shmctl ... 849

shmget ... 851

shmop ... 853

shutdown ... 855

sigaction, sigprocmask, sigpending, sigsuspend... 855

signal... 857

sigblock, siggetmask, sigsetmask, sigmask ... 858

sigpause... 858

sigreturn ... 859

sigvec ... 860

socket ... 860

socketcall... 862

socketpair ... 862

stat, fstat, lstat ... 863

statfs, fstatfs... 865

stime ... 866

swapon, swapoff ... 866

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sync... 869

sysctl ... 869

sysfs... 871

sysinfo ... 871

syslog ... 872

termios, tcgetattr, tcsetattr, tcsendbreak, tcdrain, tcflush, tcflow, cfgetospeed, cfgetispeed, cfsetispeed, cfsetospeed, tcgetpgrp, tcsetpgrp ... 874

time ... 878

times ... 878

truncate, ftruncate... 879

umask ... 880

uname ... 880

none... 881

afs_syscall, break, gtty, lock, mpx, prof, quotactl, stty, ustat ... 881

unlink ... 882

uselib ... 883

ustat ... 883

utime, utimes ... 884

vhangup ... 885

vm86 ... 885

wait, waitpid ... 886

wait3, wait4 ... 888

write... 889

Part

III

Library Functions

Intro ... 892

abort ... 892

abs ... 892

acos ... 893

acosh ... 893

alloca... 894

asin ... 894

asinh ... 895

assert ... 895

atan ... 896

atan2 ... 896

atanh ... 897

atexit ... 897

atof ... 898

atoi... 898

atol... 899

bcmp... 899

bcopy ... 900

bsearch ... 900

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xix

Introduction

htonl, htons, ntohl, ntohs ... 901

bzero ... 902

catgets ... 902

catopen, catclose ... 903

ceil ... 904

clientlib ... 904

clock ... 905

closedir... 905

confstr... 906

copysign ... 907

cos ... 907

cosh ... 908

crypt ... 908

ctermid ... 909

asctime, ctime, gmtime, localtime, mktime ... 909

difftime ... 911

div... 911

drand48, erand48, lrand48, nrand48, mrand48, jrand48, srand48, seed48, lcong48 ... 912

drem ... 913

ecvt, fcvt ... 913

erf, erfc ... 914

execl, execlp, execle, exect, execv, execvp ... 914

errno ... 916

exit ... 917

exp, log, log10, pow ... 917

expm1, log1p ... 918

fabs ... 919

fclose ... 919

clearerr, feof, ferror, fileno ... 919

fflush, fpurge... 920

ffs... 921

fgetgrent ... 921

fgetpwent ... 922

floor ... 923

fmod ... 923

fnmatch ... 924

fopen, fdopen, freopen ... 924

fpathconf, pathconf ... 925

fread, fwrite... 926

frexp... 927

fgetpos, fseek, fsetpos, ftell, rewind... 927

ftime ... 928

ftok ... 929

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gcvt ... 930

getcwd, get_current_dir_name, getwd... 931

getdirentries ... 931

getenv ... 932

getgrent, setgrent, endgrent ... 932

getgrnam, getgrgid ... 933

getlogin, cuserid ... 934

getmntent, setmntent, addmntent, endmntent, hasmntopt ... 935

getnetent, getnetbyaddr, getnetbyname, setnetent, endnetent ... 936

getopt ... 937

getpass... 940

getprotoent, getprotobyname, getprotobynumber, setprotoent, endprotoent .... 941

getpw ... 942

getpwent, setpwent, endpwent ... 943

getpwnam, getpwuid ... 944

fgetc, fgets, getc, getchar, gets, ungetc ... 944

getservent, getservbyname, getservbyport, setservent, endservent ... 945

getusershell, setusershell, endusershell ... 946

getutent, getutid, getutline, pututline, setutent, endutent, utmpname... 947

getw, putw ... 948

glob, globfree ... 949

hosts_access, hosts_ctl ... 950

hcreate, hdestroy, hsearch... 951

hypot ... 953

index, rindex ... 953

inet_aton, inet_addr, inet_network, inet_ntoa, inet_makeaddr, inet_lnaof, inet_netof ... 953

infnan ... 954

initgroups... 955

inndcomm ... 956

insque, remque... 957

isalnum, isalpha, isascii, isblank, iscntrl, isdigit, isgraph, islower, isprint, ispunct, isspace, isupper, isxdigit ... 957

isatty ... 958

isinf, isnan, finite ... 959

j0, j1, jn, y0, y1, yn ... 959

killpg... 960

labs ... 960

ldexp ... 961

ldiv... 961

lgamma ... 962

libinn ... 962

libpbm ... 966

libpgm ... 969

(21)

xxi

Introduction

libppm ... 973

localeconv ... 974

longjmp ... 975

lfind, lsearch ... 975

calloc, malloc, free, realloc ... 976

mblen ... 977

mbstowcs ... 977

mbtowc ... 978

memccpy ... 978

memchr ... 979

memcmp... 979

memcpy ... 980

memfrob ... 980

memmem... 981

memmove ... 981

memset ... 982

mkfifo ... 982

mkstemp ... 983

mktemp ... 983

modf ... 984

asctime, ctime, difftime, gmtime, localtime, mktime ... 984

tzset ... 986

on_exit ... 988

opendir ... 989

parsedate ... 989

perror ... 990

popen, pclose ... 991

printf, fprintf, sprintf, snprintf, vprintf, vfprintf, vsprintf, vsnprintf ... 992

psignal ... 996

putenv... 996

putpwent ... 997

fputc, fputs, putc, putchar, puts ... 997

qio ... 998

qsort ... 1000

raise ... 1000

rand, srand ... 1001

random, srandom, initstate, setstate ... 1001

readdir ... 1002

readv, writev... 1003

realpath ... 1004

Re_comp, re_exec ... 1005

regcomp, regexec, regerror, regfree ... 1005

remove ... 1007

(22)

rewinddir ... 1011 rint ... 1011 rquota ... 1012 scandir, alphasort ... 1012 scanf, fscanf, sscanf, vscanf, vsscanf, vfscanf ... 1013 seekdir... 1015 setbuf, setbuffer, setlinebuf, setvbuf... 1016 setenv... 1017 setjmp ... 1018 setlocale... 1018 siginterrupt ... 1019 sigemptyset, sigfillset, sigaddset, sigdelset, sigismember ... 1019 sin ... 1020 sinh ... 1021 sleep ... 1021 snprintf, vsnprintf ... 1022 sqrt ... 1023 stdarg ... 1023 stdio ... 1025 stpcpy ... 1027 strcasecmp, strncasecmp ... 1028 strcat, strncat ... 1028 strchr, strrchr ... 1029 strcmp, strncmp ... 1029 strcoll ... 1030 strcpy, strncpy... 1030 strdup ... 1031 strerror ... 1032 strfry ... 1032 strftime ... 1032 strcasecmp, strcat, strchr, strcmp, strcoll, strcpy, strcspn, strdup, strfry,

strlen, strncat, strncmp, strncpy, strncasecmp, strpbrk, strrchr, strsep,

(23)

xxiii

Introduction

swab ... 1043 sysconf ... 1043 closelog, openlog, syslog ... 1045 system ... 1047 tan ... 1047 tanh ... 1048 telldir ... 1048 tempnam ... 1049 termios, tcgetattr, tcsetattr, tcsendbreak, tcdrain, tcflush, tcflow, cfmakeraw,

cfgetospeed, cfgetispeed, cfsetispeed, cfsetospeed, tcgetpgrp, tcsetpgrp... 1049 tmpfile ... 1053 tmpnam ... 1054 toascii ... 1055 toupper, tolower... 1055 tsearch, tfind, tdelete, twalk ... 1056 ttyname... 1058 tzset ... 1058 none... 1060 usleep ... 1061 wcstombs ... 1061 wctomb ... 1061

Part

IV

Special Files

charsets ... 1064 console ... 1066 console_codes ... 1067 console ioctls... 1074 fd ... 1080 hd ... 1083 ispell ... 1084 lp ... 1090 mem, kmem, port ... 1091 mouse ... 1092 null, zero ... 1094 ram ... 1094 sd ... 1095 st ... 1096 tty ... 1100 ttys ... 1101 vcs, vcsa ... 1101

Part

V

File Formats

(24)

cfingerd... 1106 cfingerd.conf ... 1109 cfingerd

text rules...

1115

(25)

xxv

Introduction

resolver... 1183 securetty... 1184 services ... 1184 shells ... 1186 syslog.conf ... 1186 termcap ... 1188 ttytype... 1197 tzfile ... 1197 utmp, wtmp ... 1198 uuencode ... 1200 XF86Config ... 1201

Part

VI

Games

intro ... 1210 banner... 1210 ddate ... 1210

Part

VII

Miscellaneous

intro ... 1214 ascii ... 1214 bootparam ... 1216 groff_me ... 1225 groff_mm ... 1227 groff_ms... 1234 hier ... 1236 hostname ... 1238 iso_8859_1 ... 1239 locale... 1243 mailaddr... 1244 man ... 1246 signal... 1248 suffixes ... 1249 tr2tex ... 1252 Unicode ... 1253 UTF-8 ... 1255

Part

VIII

Administration and Privileged Commands

(26)

(27)

xxvii

Introduction

(28)

slattach ... 1399 sliplogin ... 1399 swapon, swapoff ... 1401 sync... 1401 sysklogd ... 1402 syslogd ... 1404 talkd... 1405 telnetd... 1406 tftpd... 1407 timed ... 1407 timedc ... 1408 traceroute ... 1409 tune2fs ... 1412 tunelp ... 1413 update_state ... 1414 uucico ... 1415 vmstat ... 1417 vipw... 1418 zdump... 1419 zic ... 1419

Part

IX

Kernel Reference Guide

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Tell Us What You Think!

As a reader, you are the most important critic of and commentator on our books. We value your opinion and want to know what we’re doing right, what we could do better, what areas you’d like to see us publish in, and any other words of wisdom you’re willing to pass our way. You can help us make strong books that meet your needs and give you the computer guidance you require.

Do you have access to the World Wide Web? Then check out our site at http://www.mcp.com.

NOTE

If you have a technical question about this book, call the technical support line at 317-581-3833 or e-mail

support@mcp.com.

As the team leader of the group that created this book, I welcome your comments. You can fax, e-mail, or write me directly to let me know what you did or didn’t like about this book—as well as what we can do to make our books stronger. Here’s the information:

Fax: 317-581-4669 E-mail: opsys_mgr@sams.mcp.com

Mail: Dean Miller

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Copyright

exit(2), access(2), alarm(2), close(2), dup(2), fcntl(2), link(2), mkdir(2), mknod(2), open(2), read(2), rename(2), rmdir(2), symlink(2), write(2) copyright © 1992 Drew Eckhardt; 1993 Michael Haardt, Ian Jackson.

chdir(2), chmod(2), chown(2), chroot(2), clone(2), execve(2), fork(2), getrlimit(2), gettimeofday(2), kill(2), nice(2), pause(2), pipe(2), reboot(2), setup(2), stime(2), swapon(2), sync(2), time(2), times(2), umask(2), uname(2), uselib(2), utime(2) copyright © 1992 Drew Eckhardt (drew@cs.colorado.edu), March 28, 1992.

acct(2), brk(2), intro(2), ioperm(2), phys(2), ptrace(2), setsid(2), termios(2), ascii(7), crypt(3), environ(5), ftime(3), ftw(3), group(5), hd(4), intro(1), intro(3), intro(4), intro(5), intro(6), intro(7), intro(8), isatty(3), issue(5), longjmp(3), mem(4), motd(5), nologin(5), null(4), passwd(5), ram(4), securetty(5), setjmp(3), shells(5), termcap(7), tty(4), ttys(4), ttytype(5), utmp(5), lp(4), perror(3) copyright © 1993, 1994, 1995 Michael

Haardt.

bind(2), connect(2), flock(2), fsync(2), getdomainname(2), getdtablesize(2), getgid(2), getgroups(2), gethostid(2), gethostname(2), getpagesize(2), getpid(2), getuid(2), idle(2), iopl(2), profil(2), recv(2), sigvec(2), undocumented(2), vhangup(2), vm86(2), acosh(3), getdiren-tries(3), ctrlaltdel(8), dmesg(8), fdformat(8), fdisk(8), fsck.minix(8), ipcrm(8), ipcs(8), sync(8), sd(4), clear(1), clock(8), domainname(1), mkfs.minix(8), mkswap(8), passwd(1), rdev(8), reset(1), setfdprm(8), setserial(8), shutdown(8), kbdrate(8), update state(8), chkdupexe(1), cytune(8) copyright 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 Rickard E. Faith

(faith@cs.unc.edu).

(aeb@cwi.nl).

Michael Chastain (mec@shell.portal.com).

accept(2), getpeername(2), listen(2), lseek(2), getpriority(2), getsockname(2), getsockopt(2), ioctl(2), killpg(2), mmap(2), readlink(2), send(2), setpgid(2), setregid(2), setreuid(2), shut-down(2), sigblock(2), sigpause(2), socket(2), socketpair(2), statfs(2),truncate(2), alloca(3), fclose(3), ferror(3), fflush(3), fread(3), fseek(3), getpass(3), mailaddr(7), popen(3), printf(3), scanf(3), setbuf(3), stdarg(3), stdio(3), banner(6), cal(1), col(1), colcrt(1), colrm(1), column(1), fstab(5), getoptprog(1), logger(1), look(1), lpc(8), lpd(8), lpq(1), lpr(1), lprm(1), lptest(1), mesg(1), mount(8), pac(8), ping(8), syslog.conf(5), syslogd(8), tsort(8), vipw(1), write(1), vi(1), rev(1), biff(1), tset(1), w(1), aliases(5), ftp(1), ftpd(8), inetd(8), newaliases(1), rcp(1), resolver(5), rexecd(8), rlogin(1), routed(8), rpc.rusersd(8), rpc.rwalld(8), rsh(1), rshd(8), rup(1), rusers(1), rwall(1), rwho(1), rwhod(8), sendmail(8), sliplogin(8), talk(1), talkd(8), telnet(1), telnetd(8), tftp(1), tftpd(8), timed(8), timedc(8), traceroute(8) copyright © 1980, 1983, 1985, 1989, 1990,

(giorgio@crcc.it).

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xxxi

Introduction

Nicolai Langfeldt (janl@ifi.uio.no), January 1, 1995.

sysinfo(2), adjustclock(9), ctrl-alt-del(9), filesystems(9), file table(9), file table init(9), get empty filp(9), grow files(9), in group p(9), insert file free(9), kernel mktime(9), proc sel(9), put file last(9), remove file free(9) copyright © 1993 by Dan Miner (dminer@nyx.cs.du.edu).

wait(2), wait4(2), confstr(3), ctermid(3), fnmatch(3), fpathconf(3), getcwd(3), getopt(3), gets(3), isalpha(3), malloc(3), signal(7), sleep(3), suffixes(7), sysconf(3), system(3), hier(7), assert(3), glob(3), killpg(3), locale(7), localeconv(3), puts(3), raise(3), readv(3), setlocale(3) copyright © 1993 by Thomas Koenig

(ig25@rz.uni-karlsruhe.de).

abort(3), abs(3), acos(3),asin(3), asinh(3),atan(3), atan2(3), atanh(3), atexit(3), atof(3), atoi(3), atol(3), bcmp(3), bcopy(3), bstring(3), byteorder(3), bzero(3), ceil(3), closedir(3), confstr(3), copysign(3), cos(3), cosh(3), ctime(3), difftime(3), div(3), drand48(3), drem(3), ecvt(3), erf(3), exec(3), exit(3), exp(3), fabs(3), ffs(3), fgetgrent(3), fgetpwent(3), fmod(3), fopen(3), frexp(3), gcvt(3), getenv(3), getgrent(3), getgrnam(3), gethostbyname(3), getm-ntent(3), getnetent(3), getprotoent(3), getpw(3), getpwent(3), getpwnam(3),

getservent(3), getusershell(3), hypot(3), index(3), inet(3), infnan(3), initgroups(3), isinf(3), j0(3), labs(3), ldexp(3), ldiv(3), lgamma(3), mblen(3), mbstowcs(3), mbtowc(3), memccpy(3), mem-chr(3), memcmp(3), memcpy(3), memfrob(3), memmem(3), memmove(3), memset(3), mkstemp(3), mktemp(3), modf(3), on exit(3), opendir(3), psignal(3), putenv(3), putpwent(3), qsort(3), rand(3), random(3), readdir(3), resolver(3), rewinddir(3), rint(3), scandir(3), seekdir(3), setenv(3), siginterrupt(3), sin(3), sinh(3), sqrt(3), strcmp(3), strcat(3), strchr(3), strcmp(3), strcoll(3), strcpy(3), strdup(3), strerror(3), strfry(3), strftime(3), string(3), strlen(3), strp-break(3), strptime(3), strsep(3), strsignal(3), strspn(3), strstr(3), strtod(3), strtok(3), str-tol(3), strtoul(3), strxfrm(3), swab(3), tan(3), tanh(3), telldir(3), tempnam(3), tmpfile(3), tmpnam(3), toupper(3), tzset(3), usleep(3), wcstombs(3), wctomb(3) copyright 1993 David Metcalfe (david@prism.demon.co.uk).

Knaff (Alain.Knaff@imag.fr).

(faith@cs.unc.edu).

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(faith@cs.unc.edu).

bdftopcf(1x), beforelight(1x), bitmap(1x), editres(1x), fsinfo(1x), flsfonts(1x),fstobdf(1x), iceauth(1x), imake(1x), lbxproxy(1x), lndir(1x), makedepend(1x), makestrs(1x), mkdirhier(1x), mkfontdir(1x), oclock(1x), resize(1x), sessreg(1x), showrgb(1x), smproxy(1x), startx(1x), x11perf(1x), x11perfcomp(1x), xauth(1x), xclipboard(1x), xclock(1x), xcmsdb(1x), xcon-sole(1x), xcutsel(1x), xdm(1x), xdpyinfo(1x), xf86config(1x), xfd(1x), xfs(1x), xhost(1x), xinit(1x), xkill(1x), xlogo(1x), xlsatoms(1x), xlsclients(1x), xlsfonts(1x), xmag(1x), xmkmf(1x), xmodmap(1x), xon(1x), xprop(1x), xrdb(1x), xrefresh(1x), xset(1x), xsetroot(1x), xsm(1x), xsmclient(1x), xstdcmap(1x), xterm(1x), xwd(1x), xwininfo(1x), xwud(1x) copyright © 1993, 1994 X

Consor-tium.

California.

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1

User Commands

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Introduction

This section introduces and describes user commands.

AUTHORS

Look at the header of the manual page for the author(s) and copyright conditions. Note that these can be different from page to page.

addftinfo

addftinfo—Add information to troff font files for use with groff

SYNOPSIS

addftinfo [ –paramvalue... ] res uni t wi dt hf ont

DESCRIPTION

addftinfo reads a troff font file and adds some additional font-metric information that is used by the groff system. The font

file with the information added is written on the standard output. The information added is guessed using some parametric information about the font and assumptions about the traditional troff names for characters. The main information added

is the heights and depths of characters. The res and unitwidth arguments should be the same as the corresponding

param-eters in the DESC file; font is the name of the file describing the font; if font ends with I, the font will be assumed to be italic.

OPTIONS

Each of the f options changes one of the parameters that is used to derive the heights and depths. Like the existing quantities

in the font file, each value is in inches/res for a font whose point size is unitwidth. param must be one of the following:

x-height The height of lowercase letters without ascenders such as x fig-height The height of figures (digits)

asc-height The height of characters with ascenders, such as b, d, or l body-height The height of characters such as parentheses

cap-height The height of uppercase letters such as A comma-depth The depth of a comma

desc-depth The depth of characters with descenders, such as p, q, or y body-depth The depth of characters such as parentheses

addftinfo makes no attempt to use the specified parameters to guess the unspecified parameters. If a parameter is not

specified, the default will be used. The defaults are chosen to have the reasonable values for a Times font.

afmtodit

afmtodit—Create font files for use with groff –Tps

SYNOPSIS

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3

DESCRIPTION

afmtodit creates a font file for use with groff and grops. afmtodit is written in Perl; you must have Perl version 3 installed in

order to run afmtodit. afm_file is the AFM (Adobe Font Metric) file for the font. map_file is a file that says which groff

character names map onto each PostScript character name; this file should contain a sequence of lines of the form:

ps_char gr of f _char

where ps_char is the PostScript name of the character and groff_char is the groff name of the character (as used in the groff

font file.) The same ps_char can occur multiple times in the file; each groff_char must occur, at most, once. font is the groff

name of the font. If a PostScript character is in the encoding to be used for the font but is not mentioned in map_file, then afmtodit will put it in the groff font file as an unnamed character, which can be accessed by the \N escape sequence in troff.

The groff_font file will be output to a file called font.

If there is a downloadable font file for the font, it may be listed in the file /usr/lib/groff/font/devps/download; see grops(1).

If the –i option is used, afmtodit will automatically generate an italic correction, a left italic correction, and a subscript

correction for each character (the significance of these parameters is explained in groff_font(5)); these parameters may be

specified for individual characters by adding to the afm_file lines of the form:

italicCorrectionps charn leftItalicCorrectionps charn subscriptCorrectionps charn

where ps_char is the PostScript name of the character, and n is the desired value of the corresponding parameter in

thou-sandths of an em. These parameters are normally needed only for italic (or oblique) fonts.

OPTIONS

–n Don’t output a ligatures command for this font. Use this with constant-width fonts. –s The font is special. The effect of this option is to add the special command to the font file. –ddesc_f i l e The device description file is desc_f i l e rather than the default DESC.

–eenc_f i l e The PostScript font should be reencoded to use the encoding described in enc_f i l e. The format of enc_f i l e is described in grops(1).

–an Use n as the slant parameter in the font file; this is used by groff in the positioning of accents. By

default, afmtodit uses the negative of the ItalicAngle specified in the af m_f i l e; with true italic

fonts, it is sometimes desirable to use a slant that is less than this. If you find that characters from an italic font have accents placed too far to the right over them, then use the –a option to give the

font a smaller slant.

–in Generate an italic correction for each character so that the character’s width plus the character’s

italic correction is equal to n thousandths of an em plus the amount by which the right edge of the character’s bounding is to the right of the character’s origin. If this would result in a negative italic correction, use a zero italic correction instead.

Also generate a subscript correction equal to the product of the tangent of the slant of the font and four-fifths of the x-height of the font. If this would result in a subscript correction greater than the italic correction, use a subscript correction equal to the italic correction instead.

Also generate a left italic correction for each character equal to n thousandths of an em plus the amount by which the left edge of the character’s bounding box is to the left of the character’s origin. The left italic correction may be negative.

This option is normally needed only with italic (or oblique) fonts. The font files distributed with

groff were created using an option of –i50 for italic fonts.

FILES

/usr/lib/groff/font/devps/DESC Device description file /usr/lib/groff/font/devps/F Font description file for font F

/usr/lib/groff/font/devps/download List of downloadable fonts

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/usr/lib/groff/font/devps/text.enc Encoding used for text fonts /usr/lib/groff/font/devps/generate/textmap Standard mapping

ansi2knr

ansi2knr—Convert ANSI C to Kernighan & Ritchie C

SYNOPSIS

ansi2knr i nput _f i l e out put _f i l e

DESCRIPTION

If no out put _f i l e is supplied, output goes to stdout. There are no error messages.

ansi2knr recognizes functions by seeing a nonkeyword identifier at the left margin, followed by a left parenthesis, with a right

parenthesis as the last character on the line. It will recognize a multiline header if the last character on each line but the last is a left parenthesis or comma. T hese algorithms ignore whitespace and comments, except that the function name must be the first thing on the line.

The following constructs will confuse it:

■ Any other construct that starts at the left margin and follows the above syntax (such as a macro or function call)

■ Macros that tinker with the syntax of the function header

31 December 1990

anytopnm

anytopnm—Attempt to convert an unknown type of image file to a portable anymap

SYNOPSIS

anytopnm f i l e

DESCRIPTION

anytopnm uses the file program, possibly augmented by the magic numbers file included with PBMPLUS, to try to figure out

what type of image file it is. If that fails (very few image formats have magic numbers), looks at the filename extension. If that fails, punt.

The type of the output file depends on the input file.

BUGS

It’s a script. Scripts are not portable to non-UNIX environments.

AUTHOR

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5

appres

appres—List X application resource database

SYNOPSIS

appres [[cl ass [i nst ance]] [–1] [t ool ki t opt i ons]

DESCRIPTION

The appres program prints the resources seen by an application (or subhierarchy of an application) with the specified class

and instance names. It can be used to determine which resources a particular program will load. For example,

% appres XTerm

will list the resources that any xterm program will load. If no application class is specified, the class -AppResTest- is used.

To match a particular instance name, specify an instance name explicitly after the class name, or use the normal Xt toolkit

option. For example,

% appres XTerm myxterm

or

% appres XTerm –name myxterm

To list resources that match a subhierarchy of an application, specify hierarchical class and instance names. The number of class and instance components must be equal, and the instance name should not be specified with a toolkit option. For example,

% appres Xman.TopLevelShell.Form xman.topBox.form

will list the resources of widgets of xmantopBox hierarchy. To list just the resources matching a specific level in the hierarchy,

use the –1 option. For example, % appres XTerm.VT100 xterm.vt100 –1

will list the resources matching the xtermvt100 widget.

AUTHOR

Jim Fulton (MIT X Consortium)

X Version 11 Release 6

ar

ar—Create, modify, and extract from archives

SYNOPSIS

ar [ - ] dmpqrtx[abcilosuvV] [ member name ] ar chi ve f i l es ...

DESCRIPTION

The GNU ar program creates, modifies, and extracts from archives. An archive is a single file holding a collection of other

files in a structure that makes it possible to retrieve the original individual files (called members of the archive). The original files’ contents, mode (permissions), timestamp, owner, and group are preserved in the archive, and may be reconstituted on extraction.

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GNU ar can maintain archives whose members have names of any length; however, depending on how ar is configured on

your system, a limit on member-name length may be imposed (for compatibility with archive formats maintained with other tools). If it exists, the limit is often 15 characters (typical of formats related to a.out) or 16 characters (typical of formats

related to coff).

ar is considered a binary utility because archives of this sort are most often used as libraries holding commonly needed

subroutines.

ar will create an index to the symbols defined in relocatable object modules in the archive when you specify the modifier s.

Once created, this index is updated in the archive whenever ar makes a change to its contents (save for the q update

operation). An archive with such an index speeds up linking to the library, and allows routines in the library to call each other without regard to their placement in the archive.

You may use nm –s or nm —print–armap to list this index table. If an archive lacks the table, another form of ar called ranlib

can be used to add just the table.

ar insists on at least two arguments to execute: one keyletter specifying the operation (optionally accompanied by other

keyletters specifying modifiers ), and the archive name to act on.

Most operations can also accept further files arguments, specifying particular files to operate on.

OPTIONS

GNU ar allows you to mix the operation code p and modifier flags mod in any order, within the first command-line

argument.

If you wish, you may begin the first command-line argument with a dash.

The p keyletter specifies what operation to execute; it may be any of the following, but you must specify only one of them:

d Delete modules from the archive. Specify the names of modules to be deleted as files ; the archive is

untouched if you specify no files to delete.

If you specify the v modifier, ar will list each module as it is deleted. m Use this operation to move members in an archive.

The ordering of members in an archive can make a difference in how programs are linked using the library if a symbol is defined in more than one member.

If no modifiers are used with m, any members you name in the files arguments are moved to the end of

the archive; you can use the a, b, or i modifiers to move them to a specified place instead. p Print the specified members of the archive to the standard output file. If the v modifier is specified,

show the membername before copying its contents to standard output. If you specify no files, all the files in the archive are printed.

q Quick append; add files to the end of archive without checking for replacement.

The modifiers a, b, and i do not affect this operation; new members are always placed at the end of the

archive.

The modifier v makes ar list each file as it is appended.

Since the point of this operation is speed, the archive’s symbol table index is not updated, even if it already existed; you can use ar s or ranlib explicitly to update the symbol table index.

r Insert files into archive (with replacement). This operation differs from q in that any previously existing

members are deleted if their names match those being added.

If one of the files named in files doesn’t exist, ar displays an error message and leaves undisturbed any

existing members of the archive matching that name.

By default, new members are added at the end of the file, but you may use one of the modifiers a, b, or i to request placement relative to some existing member.

The modifier v used with this operation elicits a line of output for each file inserted, along with one of

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7

t Display a table listing the contents of archive, or those of the files listed in files that are present in the

archive. Normally, only the membername is shown; if you also want to see the modes (permissions), timestamp, owner, group, and size, you can request that by also specifying the v modifier.

If you do not specify any files, all files in the archive are listed.

If there is more than one file with the same name (say, fie) in an archive (say, b.a), ar t b.a fie will

list only the first instance; to see them all, you must ask for a complete listing—in our example, ar t b.a.

x Extract members (named files) from the archive. You can use the v modifier with this operation to

request that ar list each name as it extracts it.

If you do not specify any files, all files in the archive are extracted.

A number of modifiers (mod) may immediately follow the p keyletter, to specify variations on an operation’s behavior, as

follows:

a Add new files after an existing member of the archive. If you use the modifier a, the name of an

existing archive member must be present as the membername argument, before the archive specifica-tion.

b Add new files before an existing member of the archive. If you use the modifier b, the name of an

existing archive member must be present as the membername argument, before the archive specifica-tion (same as i).

c Create the archive. The specified archive is always created if it didn’t exist when you request an update.

But a warning is issued unless you specify in advance that you expect to create it by using this modifier.

i Insert new files before an existing member of the archive. If you use the modifier i, the name of an

existing archive member must be present as the membername argument, before the archive specifica-tion. (same as b).

l This modifier is accepted but not used.

o Preserve the original dates of members when extracting them. If you do not specify this modifier, files

extracted from the archive will be stamped with the time of extraction.

s Write an object-file index into the archive, or update an existing one, even if no other change is made

to the archive. You may use this modifier flag either with any operation, or alone. Running ar s on an

archive is equivalent to running ranlib on it.

u Normally, ar r... inserts all files listed into the archive. If you would like to insert only those of the

files you list that are newer than existing members of the same names, use this modifier. The u modifier

is allowed only for the operation r (replace). In particular, the combination qu is not allowed, since

checking the timestamps would lose any speed advantage from the operation q.

v This modifier requests the verbose version of an operation. Many operations display additional

information, such as filenames processed, when the modifier v is appended. V This modifier shows the version number of ar.

COPYING

Copyright  1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice may be included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the original English.

Cygnus Support, 5 November 1991

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arch

arch—Print architecture

SYNOPSIS

arch

DESCRIPTION

arch displays machine architecture type.

GNU

as

GNU as—The portable GNU assembler

SYNOPSIS

as [ –a | –al | -as ][–D ][–f ][–I pat h ][–K ][–L ][–o obj f i l e ][–R ][–v ][–w ][––\|\

f i l es ...]

i960-only options:

[ –ACA| –ACA A | –ACB | –ACC| –AKA| –AKB | –AKC| –AMC][–b ][–no-relax ]

m680x0-only options:

[ –l ][–mc68000| –mc68010| –mc68020]

DESCRIPTION

GNU as is really a family of assemblers. If you use (or have used) the GNU assembler on one architecture, you should find a

fairly similar environment when you use it on another architecture. Each version has much in common with the others, including object file formats, most assembler directives (often called pseudo-ops) and assembler syntax.

For information on the syntax and pseudo-ops used by GNU as, see as entry in info (or the manual Using as: The GNU Assembler).

as is primarily intended to assemble the output of the GNU C compiler gcc for use by the linker ld. Nevertheless, we’ve tried

to make as assemble correctly everything that the native assembler would. This doesn’t mean as always uses the same syntax

as another assembler for the same architecture; for example, we know of several incompatible versions of 680x0 assembly language syntax.

Each time you run as, it assembles exactly one source program. The source program is made up of one or more files. (The standard input is also a file.)

If as is given no filenames, it attempts to read one input file from the as standard input, which is normally your terminal.

You may have to type Ctrl-D to tell as there is no more program to assemble. Use –– if you need to explicitly name the

standard input file in your command line.

as may write warnings and error messages to the standard error file (usually your terminal). T his should not happen when as

is run automatically by a compiler. Warnings report an assumption made so that as could keep assembling a flawed program;

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9

OPTIONS

–a|–al|–as Turn on assembly listings; –al, listing only, –as, symbols only, -a, everything. –D This option is accepted only for script compatibility with calls to other assemblers; it

has no effect on as.

–f “Fast”–skip preprocessing (assume source is compiler output).

–I\pat h Add path to the search list for .include directives.

–K Issue warnings when difference tables altered for long displacements. –L Keep (in symbol table) local symbols, starting with L.

–o\obj f i l e Name the object-file output from as.

–R Fold data section into text section.

–v Announce as version.

–W Suppress warning messages.

––\|\f i l es... Source files to assemble, or standard input (––).

–Avar (When configured for Intel 960.) Specify which variant of the 960 architecture is the

target.

–b (When configured for Intel 960.) Add code to collect statistics about branches taken. –no-relax (When configured for Intel 960.) Do not alter compare-and-branch instructions for

long displacements; error if necessary.

–l (When configured for Motorola 68000.) Shorten references to undefined symbols to

one word instead of two.

–mc68000|–mc68010|–mc68020 (When configured for Motorola 68000.) Specify which processor in the 68000

family is the target (default 68020).

Options may be in any order, and may be before, after, or between filenames. T he order of filenames is significant. The double hyphens command (—) by itself names the standard input file explicitly, as one of the files for as to assemble.

Except for ––, any command line argument that begins with a hyphen (–) is an option. Each option changes the behavior of as. No option changes the way another option works. An option is a hyphen followed by one or more letters; the case of the

letter is important. All options are optional.

The –o option expects exactly one filename to follow. T he filename may either immediately follow the option’s letter

(compatible with older assemblers) or it may be the next command argument (GNU standard). These two command lines are equivalent:

as –o my–object–file.o mumble.s

as –omy–object–file.o mumble.s

COPYING

Copyright  1991, 1992 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice may be included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the original English.

Cygnus Support, 21 January 1992

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asciitopgm

asciitopgm—Convert ASCII graphics into a portable graymap

SYNOPSIS

asciitopgm [-d divisor] hei ght wi dt h [asci i f i l e]

DESCRIPTION

Reads ASCII data as input. Produces a portable graymap with pixel values that are an approximation of the brightness of the ASCII characters, assuming black-on-white printing. In other words, a capital M is very dark, a period is very light, and a space is white. Input lines that are fewer than wi dt h characters are automatically padded with spaces.

The divisor argument is a floating-point number by which the output pixels are divided; the default value is 1.0. This can be

used to adjust the brightness of the graymap; for example, if the image is too dim, reduce the divisor.

In keeping with (I believe) FORT RAN line-printer conventions, input lines beginning with a + (plus) character are assumed

to overstrike the previous line, allowing a larger range of gray values.

This tool contradicts the message in the pbmtoascii manual: “Note that there is no asciitopbm tool—this transformation is

one-way.”

BUGS

The table of ASCII-to-gray values is subject to interpretation, and, of course, depends on the typeface intended for the input.

AUTHOR

Wilson H. Bent, Jr. (whb@usc.edu)

26 December 1994

atktopbm

atktopbm—Convert Andrew Toolkit raster object to portable bitmap

SYNOPSIS

atktopbm [at kf i l e]

DESCRIPTION

atktopbm reads an Andrew Toolkit raster object as input and produces a portable bitmap as output.

AUTHOR

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11

bash

bash—GNU Bourne–again shell

SYNOPSIS

bash [opt i ons] [f i l e]

DESCRIPTION

bash is an sh–compatible command language interpreter that executes commands read from the standard input or from a file. bash also incorporates useful features from the Korn and C shells (ksh and csh).

bash is ultimately intended to be a conformant implementation of the IEEE POSIX Shell and Tools specification (IEEE

Working Group 10032).

OPTIONS

In addition to the single–character shell options documented in the description of the set built-in command, bash interprets

the following flags when it is invoked:

–c st r i ng If the –c flag is present, then commands are read from st r i ng. If there are arguments after the

string, they are assigned to the positional parameters, starting with $0. –i If the –i flag is present, the shell is interactive.

–s If the –s flag is present, or if no arguments remain after option processing, then commands are

read from the standard input. This option allows the positional parameters to be set when invoking an interactive shell.

– A single – signals the end of options and disables further option processing. Any arguments after

the – are treated as filenames and arguments. An argument of — is equivalent to an argument

of –.

bash also interprets a number of multicharacter options. T o be recognized, these options must appear on the command line

before the single–character options.

–norc Do not read and execute the personal initialization file ˜/.bashrc if the shell is interactive. This

option is on by default if the shell is invoked as sh.

–noprofile Do not read either the system–wide startup file /etc/profile or any of the personal

initializa-tion files ˜/.bash_profile, ˜/.bash_login, or ˜/.profile. By default, bash normally reads these

files when it is invoked as a login shell. (See the “Invocation” section, later in this manual page.)

–rcfile f i l e Execute commands from file instead of the standard personal initialization file ˜/.bashrc, if the

shell is interactive. (See “Invocation.”)

–version Show the version number of this instance of bash when starting.

–quiet Do not be verbose when starting up (do not show the shell version or any other information).

This is the default.

–login Make bash act as if it had been invoked as a login shell.

–nobraceexpansion Do not perform curly brace expansion. (See “Brace Expansion,” later in this manual page.) –nolineediting Do not use the GNU readline library to read command lines if interactive.

–posix Change the behavior of bash where the default operation differs from the POSIX 1003.2

standard to match the standard.

ARGUMENTS

If arguments remain after option processing, and neither the –c nor the –s option has been supplied, the first argument is

assumed to be the name of a file containing shell commands. If bash is invoked in this fashion, is set to the name of the file,

and the positional parameters are set to the remaining arguments. bash reads and executes commands from this file, then

exits. bash’s exit status is the exit status of the last command executed in the script.

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DEFINITIONS

blank A space or tab.

word A sequence of characters considered as a single unit by the shell. Also known as a token. name A word consisting only of alphanumeric characters and underscores and beginning with an

alphabetic character or an underscore. Also referred to as an identifier. meta character A character that, when unquoted, separates words. One of the following:

|, & , ;, (, ), <, >, space, tab

control operator A token that performs a control function. It is one of the following symbols: ||, & , & & , ;, ;;, (, ), |, <newline>

RESERVED WORDS

Reserved words are words that have a special meaning to the shell. The following words are recognized as reserved when unquoted and either the first word of a simple command (see “Shell Grammar,” next) or the third word of a case or for command:

! case do done elif else esac fi for function if in select then until while { }

SHELL GRAMMAR

SIMPLE COMMANDS

A simple command is a sequence of optional variable assignments followed by words and redirections separated by blank and terminated by a control operator. The first word specifies the command to be executed. The remaining words are passed as arguments to the invoked command.

The return value of a simple command is its exit status, or 128+n if the command is terminated by signal n.

PIPELINES

A pipeline is a sequence of one or more commands separated by the character |. The format for a pipeline is

[!]command [ | command2 ... ]

The standard output of command is connected to the standard input of command2. This connection is performed before any

redirections specified by the command. (See the “Redirection” section, later in this manual page.)

If the reserved word ! precedes a pipeline, the exit status of that pipeline is the logical NOT of the exit status of the last

command. Otherwise, the status of the pipeline is the exit status of the last command. The shell waits for all commands in the pipeline to terminate before returning a value.

Each command in a pipeline is executed as a separate process (that is, in a subshell).

LISTS

A list is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by one of these operators: ;, &, &&, or ||, and terminated by one of

these: ;, &, or <newline>.

Of these list operators, && and || have equal precedence, followed by ; and &, which have equal precedence.

If a command is terminated by the control operator &, the shell executes the command in the background in a subshell. The

shell does not wait for the command to finish, and the return status is 0. Commands separated by a ; are executed

sequen-tially; the shell waits for each command to terminate in turn. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed.

The control operators && and || denote AND lists and OR lists, respectively. An AND list has the form:

command && command2